Mtundu wa Anthu Umene Unatenga Malo ku Asia

Anthu a ku Russia anali ndi mantha ndipo anasokonezeka kwambiri. Asilikali ankhaninkhani okwera a kavalo ochokera cha kummawa, anafika m’deralo n’kuyamba kupha anthu, kulanda katundu ndi kugonjetseratu asilikali ena onse amene ankayesa kulimbana nawo. M’dziko la Russia, kadera kotchedwa Novgorod kokha ndi kamene sikanakhudzidwe ndi nkhondoyi. Wolemba mbiri wina wa kuderali analemba za nkhondo imeneyi kuti asilikali amene anabwerawo anali “a fuko losadziwika” ndipo ankalankhula chinenero chachilendo.

ASILIKALIWA anali ochokera m’dziko la Mongolia m’chigawo chapakati komanso kumpoto chakummawa kwa Asia. Kuyambira mu 12 C.E., iwo anayamba kugonjetsa anthu mofulumira ndipo izi zinachititsa kuti zinthu zisinthe ku Asia komanso madera ena a ku Ulaya. M’zaka 25 zokha, asilikali amenewa anagonjetsa anthu a m’madera ambiri kuposa amene Aroma anagonjetsa m’zaka 400. Ufumu wawo utafika pachimake ankalamulira kuchokera ku Korea kufika ku Hungary ndiponso kuchokera ku Siberia kufika ku India. Iwo analamulira mayiko oyandikana m’dera lalikulu kwambiri.

Ufumu wakanthawi wa anthu a ku Mongolia umatithandiza kudziwa mbiri ya ku Asia ndi ku Ulaya. Kuwonjezera pa zimenezi, umatsimikizira zimene Baibulo limaphunzitsa pankhani ya zochita za anthu ndiponso ulamuliro wawo. Mfundo zina za choonadi zimene umatsimikizira ndi zakuti, Ulemerero wa anthu ndi wachabechabe ndiponso wosakhalitsa. (Salmo 62:9; 144:4) “Wina apweteka mnzake pom’lamulira.” (Mlaliki 8:9) Baibulo limayerekezera maulamuliro a ndale ndi zilombo. Ndipotu mpake, chifukwa anthu ambiri akhala akuchita zinthu mofanana ndi zilombo pofuna kulamulira mayiko ena. *

Kodi Anthu a ku Mongolia Anali Ndani?

Anthu a ku Mongolia, kapena kuti a Mongol, anali anthu osamukasamuka amene ankayenda pa mahatchi. Ankaweta ziweto, kuchita malonda ndiponso kusaka. M’mitundu ina, ndi anthu ochepa chabe amene anali asilikali. Koma pafupifupi mwamuna aliyense wa ku Mongolia, wokhala ndi hatchi ndiponso uta, anali msilikali woopsa. Ndipo fuko lililonse linkakhala lokhulupirika kwambiri kwa mtsogoleri wawo, yemwe ankatchedwa kuti khan.

Mtsogoleri wina wotere, dzina lake Temüjin, (yemwe anabadwa cha m’ma 1162 ndipo anamwalira cha m’ma 1227), anachita nkhondo kwa zaka 20 ndi mafuko ena ndipo nkhondoyi inachititsa kuti mafuko 27 a anthu a ku Mongolia agwirizane. Patsogolo pake, Asilamu ochokera m’chigawo cha Turkey otchedwa a Tatar anagwirizana ndi anthuwa pankhondo zawo. Moti panthawi ina magulu oopsa a asilikali a ku Mongolia atayamba kulowerera cha kumadzulo, ku Ulaya anthu ankangoti kukubwera Atatala. * M’chaka cha 1206, Temüjin atangopitirira zaka 40, anthu a ku Mongolia anayamba kumutchula kuti Genghis Khan, kutanthauza kuti ngwazi yawo. Motero ankatchedwa Ngwazi Khan.

 Gulu la asilikali la Genghis Khan linkayenda pamahatchi litanyamula mauta, ndipo linalanda dera lalikulu pa kanthawi kochepa, komanso linkamenya nkhondo zingapo nthawi imodzi. Buku lina linati pankhani yodziwa nkhondo, “mkulu wa asilikali ameneyu tingamuyerekezere ndi Alesandro Wamkulu kapena Napoliyoni Woyamba.” (Encarta Encyclopedia) Katswiri wa mbiri yakale wa ku Persia, dzina lake Juzjani, yemwe anakhalapo m’nyengo ya Genghis Khan, anafotokoza kuti iyeyu “anali munthu wamphamvu zosaneneka, wa nzeru zakuya, ndiponso wodziwa zinthu kwambiri.” Koma anatinso “anali munthu wachilope, wokonda kupha anthu.”

Anafika Kutali Kwambiri ndi Mongolia

Anthu otchedwa a Manchu ankalamulira chigawo cha kumpoto kwa China, ndipo ufumu wawo ankautcha kuti Jin, kutanthauza kuti “Wopambana.” Pofuna kukafika m’chigawo cha a Manchu, a Mongol anawoloka chipululu chotchedwa Gobi. Izi sizinali zovuta kwa anthu oyendayendawa, chifukwa zikavuta ankatha kumwa mkaka ndiponso kudya liwende la mahatchi. Ngakhale kuti ulamuliro wa Genghis Khan unakafika ku China ndi ku Manchuria, nkhondo inapitirirabe mpaka zaka pafupifupi 20. Iye anaphunzitsa anthu ena ku China luso losiyanasiyana. Anawaphunzitsanso zamalonda, zokonza mainjini a zida zankhondo, ndiponso mabomba.

Atalanda dera lotchedwa Silk Road, limene amalonda ankadutsamo cha kumadzulo, Genghis Khan anapanga mgwirizano wa zamalonda ndi mfumu ya ku Turkey yolamulira madera apafupi ndi chigawochi. Dzina la mfumuyi linali Muhammad ndipo inkalamulira chigawo chachikulu kwambiri chimene panopo kuli mayiko otsatirawa: Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, ndi gawo lalikulu la dziko la Iran.

M’chaka cha 1218, gulu la a Mongol, lomwe linati labwerera zamalonda, linafika m’chigawo cholamulidwa ndi mfumuyi. Koma bwanamkubwa wa kumeneku anakayikira gululo n’kunyonga anthu onsewo, ndipo zimenezi zinachititsa kuti a Mongol amenyane ndi dziko la Chisilamu. Kwa zaka zitatu zotsatira, a Mongol, omwe akuti anali ambiri kuposa nyerere, anayamba kuwotcha ndi kufunkha zinthu m’mizinda ndiponso m’minda yosiyanasiyana. Anapha anthu ambirimbiri a Mfumu Muhammad, n’kusiya okhawo amene anali ndi maluso amene iwowo ankafuna.

Kenaka, asilikali a ku Mongolia aja, omwe akuti analipo pafupifupi 20,000, anafika ku Azerbaijan ndi ku Georgia mpaka ku Caucasia. Konseko ankagonjetsa magulu onse ankhondo amene anakumana nawo, kuphatikizapo gulu la nkhondo la ku Russia, la asilikali 80,000. Atayenda ulendo wa makilomita 13,000, a Mongol anayenda chigawo chonse chozungulira nyanja ya Caspian n’kumenya nkhondo imene ili m’gulu la nkhondo zotchuka kwambiri m’mbiri yonse. Zimenezi zinachititsa kuti zidzakhale zosavuta m’tsogolo kuti mafumu ena a ku Mongolia atumize magulu ankhondo n’kulowerera zigawo za kum’mawa kwa Ulaya.

Amene Anatenga Malo a Genghis Khan

Ögödei, yemwe anali mwana wachitatu mwa ana anayi a mkazi wamkulu wa Genghis Khan, ndi  amene anatenga malo a Ngwazi Khan. Ögödei anayambanso kulamulira madera amene anagonjetsedwawo ndipo ankalandira misonkho kuchokera kwa mafumu ang’onoang’ono. Iye anagonjetseratu mafumu a ku China otchedwa Jin.

Pofuna kulimbikitsa ufumu wake komanso moyo wosasowa kanthu umene a Mongol anazolowera, Ögödei anaganiza zokamenyanso nkhondo. Panthawiyi anapita kumadera amene sanagonjetsedwepo. Nkhondo yake inali yolowera mbali ziwiri. Anakamenya nkhondo yoyamba ku madera a kumadzulo kwa Ulaya ndiponso yachiwiri anamenyana ndi ufumu wa kum’mwera kwa China wotchedwa Sung. Iye anapambana pankhondo ya ku Ulaya yokha. A Mongol ankapambana nkhondo zina, koma sanagonjetse ufumu wa Sung.

Kugonjetsa Madera a Kumadzulo

Mu 1236, gulu la asilikali okwana 150,000 linalowera kumadzulo, cha ku Ulaya. Choyamba, anafuna kugonjetsa madera a m’mphepete mwa mtsinje wa Volga. Kenako, anakagonjetsa mizinda ina ya ku Russia n’kuwonongeratu mzinda wa Kiev. A Mongol analonjeza kuti sakawononga mizindayo ngati adzawapatsa katundu wosiyanasiyana wa m’mizindayo. Anthu a ku Russia sanalole zimenezi, m’malomwake anasankha zomenyana nawo. A Mongol ankaponya miyala ikuluikulu pogwiritsa ntchito zida zoponyera miyala. Ankaponyanso poizoni ndi moto wamafuta. Asilikaliwo atagumula malinga, analowa mumzindawo ndi kupha pafupifupi anthu onse. Wolemba mbiri wina anati “panali maliro osalirika.”

Asilikali a ku Mongolia anasakaza dziko la Poland ndi la Hungary, mpaka kufika m’madera oyandikana ndi kumene panopa kuli dziko la Germany. Anthu a kumadzulo kwa Ulaya anakonzekera kudziteteza koma nkhondoyo sinafikeko. Mu December 1241, Ögödei Khan anafa ataledzera. Choncho a Mongol anabwerera mwamsanga ku Karakorum mzinda umene unali pamtunda wa makilomita 6,000 kuti akasankhe mfumu yatsopano.

Mwana wa Ögödei, dzina lake Güyük, ndi amene analowa m’malo. Mwa amene anaonerera Güyük akulongedwa ufumu anali Mkatolika wina wa ku Italy. Mkatolikayu anayenda ulendo wa miyezi 15 kudzafika kumeneku kuti adzapereke kalata yochokera kwa Papa Innocent Wachinayi. M’kalatayo Papayu ankafuna kuti a Mongol amutsimikizire kuti saukira madera a ku Ulaya ndipo anawalimbikitsa kuti akhale Akhristu. Koma Güyük sanalonjeze kuti achita zimenezi. M’malomwake anauza Papayo kuti akabwere ndi mafumu a kumeneku posonyeza kuti amalemekeza iyeyu, monga Mfumu Khan.

Nkhondo Zina Ziwiri

Ngwazi Khan yotsatira inali Mongke ndipo inalongedwa ufumu mu 1251. Iye ndi mng’ono wake Kublai, anakamenyana ndi ufumu wa Sung kum’mwera kwa China ndipo anatumiza gulu lina lomwe linalowera cha kumadzulo. Gulu lachiwirilo linakagonjetsa mzinda wa Baghdad ndipo anthu a ku Damascus anagonja kwa asilikaliwa. Anthu odzitcha Akhristu amene ankamenyana ndi Asilamu anasangalala ataona kuti Asilamu agonjetsedwa. Anthu ena amene ankakhala ku Baghdad anapha anansi awowo n’kufunkha chuma chawo chonse.

Panthawi imene a Mongol anatsala pang’ono kugonjetseratu  Asilamu kunachitikanso zimene zinachitika poyamba paja. Kunabweranso uthenga wakuti mfumu yawo, Mongke yafa. Panthawi imeneyinso asilikaliwo anabwerera kwawo n’kusiya asilikali 10,000 okha kuti apitirize nkhondoyo. Patangopita nthawi yochepa gulu la asilikaliwo linaphedwa ndi asilikali a ku Iguputo.

Anthuwa anapambana nkhondo yomenyana ndi ufumu wa Sung wa ku China, womwe unali wolemera. Kublai Khan ankadzitcha Tate wa ufumu wa ku China ndipo ufumuwo anaupatsa dzina lakuti Yuan. Likulu lake linali m’dera lomwe panopa kuli mzinda wa Beijing. M’ma 1270, atagonjetsa anthu ena amene anali ku mbali ya ufumu wa Sung, Kublai anayamba kulamulira dziko lonse la China. Iyi inali nthawi yoyamba kuti dzikoli likhale logwirizana kuchokera pamene ufumu wa Tang unatha mu 907.

Unagawikana Mpaka Kutha

Chakumayambiriro kwa m’ma 1300, ufumu wa a Mongol uja unayamba kugawikana. Pali zifukwa zambiri zimene zinachititsa zimenezi. Chifukwa chimodzi chinali chakuti anthu ena a mbumba ya Genghis Khan anayamba kukanganirana ufumuwo motero unagawikana ndipo gawo lililonse linali ndi wolamulira wake. Chinanso n’chakuti a Mongol analowererana ndi mitundu ina imene anaigonjetsa. Ku China, anthu a mbumba ya Kublai anayamba kuchepa mphamvu chifukwa cholimbirana ufumu. M’chaka cha 1368 anthu a ku China, atatopa ndi olamulira achabechabe, akatangale, ndiponso atatopa ndi misonkho yoboola m’thumba, anachotsa mafumu a ku Mongolia aja, n’kuwabweza kwawo.

Zimene ufumu wa a Mongol unachita, n’zofanana ndi chimphepo chamkuntho, chifukwa unangotulukira mwadzidzidzi ndipo posakhalitsa unatha. Komabe, zimene unachita n’zosaiwalika m’mbiri ya Ulaya ndi Asia. Zinthu zake ndi monga kugwirizanitsa Mongolia ndi China. Inde, panopo anthu a ku Mongolia amatamabe mfumu yoyamba ya ku Mongolia, Genghis Khan, ndipo amamutcha kuti tate wa mtundu wawo.

[Mawu a M’munsi]

[Bokosi/Chithunzi patsamba 13]

Anali okonda nkhondo komanso zamalonda

Ufumu wa Yuan, womwe unakhazikitsidwa ndi Kublai Khan, utafika pachimake unalimbikitsa zamalonda ndiponso zamaulendo. Monga anthu ena ananenera, zimenezi zinachititsa kuti “zamalonda zipite patsogolo kwambiri ku Ulaya ndi ku Asia kuposa kale lonse.” Iyi inali nthawi ya munthu wina wa ku Italy, wotchuka pankhani yoona malo, dzina lake Marco Polo (anabadwa mu 1254 ndipo anafa mu 1324). * Azamalonda a ku Arabia, Persia, India ndi ku Ulaya anayenda maulendo apamtunda ndi apanyanja atatenga mahatchi, makalapeti, miyala yamtengo wapatali, ndiponso zinthu zokometsera zakudya, n’kumasinthanitsa zinthu zimenezi ndi zinthu monga mbale zadothi, zosemasema, ndi nsalu za silika.

M’chaka cha 1492, Christopher Columbus, anatenga mapepala amene Marco Polo analembapo mapu a maulendo ake. Atatero analowera cha kumadzulo kwa Ulaya pa chombo chapamadzi, pofuna kuti akayambe ubale wa zamalonda ndi ufumu wa a Mongol. Iyeyu anatero chifukwa chosadziwa kuti ufumuwo unali utatha kalekale, zaka zoposa 100 m’mbuyomo. Kugwa kwa ufumuwu kunachititsa kuti kuyenderana kuzivuta, ndipo Asilamu analetsa maulendo apamtunda ochokera ku Ulaya kupita m’zigawo za Kum’mawa.

[Mawu a M’munsi]

[Bokosi/Chithunzi patsamba 14]

Ankalola anthu kupembedza mwaufulu

Ngakhale kuti anthu akale a ku Mongolia anali opembedza mizimu, iwo ankakhala bwinobwino ndi anthu azipembedzo zosiyanasiyana. Buku lina linati azungu atafika ku Karakorum, lomwe linali likulu la Mongolia, anadabwa kuona chuma chake komanso kuona matchalitchi, mizikiti ndi akachisi zitamangidwa moyandikana.—The Devil’s Horsemen.

Chikhristu chinafika ku Mongolia ndi anthu otchedwa a Nestoria, amene anapanduka m’tchalitchi cha Byzantine, kapena kuti Eastern. Anthu otchedwa a Nestoria anatembenuza anthu ambiri a mafuko a ku Turkey ku Ulaya, amene a Mongol anakumana nawo. Akazi ena a mafuko amenewa anakwatiwa ndi anthu am’banja lachifumu la a Mongol.

Masiku ano, ku Mongolia kuli anthu a zipembedzo zosiyanasiyana. Anthu 30 pa 100 alionse ali m’zipembedzo zamakolo, anthu 23 pa 100 alionse, ali m’chipembedzo chotchedwa Chibuda cha ku Lama (Tibet), ndipo 5 pa 100 alionse ndi a Chisilamu. Ena onsewo alibe chipembedzo chilichonse.

[Mapu patsamba 15]

(Onani m’magazini yeniyeni kuti mumvetse izi)

Zigawo Zimene Ufumu wa a Mongol Unafika

HUNGARY

RUSSIA

Kiev

Mtsinje wa Volga

SIBERIA

Nyanja ya Caspian

Damascus

IRAN

Baghdad

UZBEKISTAN

MONGOLIA

Karakorum

Chipululu cha Gobi

KOREA

CHINA

Beijing

INDIA

Novgorod

[Chithunzi patsamba 15]

Gulu la mahatchi ku Mongolia

[Chithunzi patsamba 15]

Genghis Khan

[Mawu a Chithunzi patsamba 12]

Bildarchiv Preussischer Kulturbesitz/​Art Resource, NY

[Mawu a Chithunzi patsamba 15]

Scenic: © Bruno Morandi/​age fotostock; Genghis Khan: © The Stapleton Collection/​The Bridgeman Art Library