dead in your trespasses and sins: In the Bible, death and life can be used in a figurative, or a spiritual, sense. Paul says that the former course of the Ephesian Christians made them “dead in [their] trespasses and sins.” One lexicon describes the figurative use of the Greek word for “dead” in this verse as a person’s “being so morally or spiritually deficient as to be in effect dead.” However, Paul shows that Jehovah could now view those spirit-anointed Christians as being alive, since they had repented of their sinful way of life on the basis of Jesus’ sacrifice.​—Eph 2:5; Col 2:13; see study notes on Lu 9:60; Joh 5:24, 25.

the system of things of this world: The Greek word here rendered “system of things” basically means “age.” It often denotes the current state of affairs or features that distinguish a certain period of time. The Greek word for “world” (koʹsmos) here refers to the unrighteous human society alienated from God. In this verse, where these two terms are combined, the whole expression could be rendered “the course [or, “customs; ways”] of this world,” referring to the behavior and standards of people alienated from God. Paul makes the point that the Christians in Ephesus had once led, or walked according to, an unrighteous way of life.

the ruler of the authority of the air: Satan the Devil is the “ruler” referred to here. Paul uses the literal air, or atmosphere, to illustrate how the spirit, or dominant attitude, of selfishness and disobedience permeates the world today. Paul uses similar language at 1Co 2:12 in referring to “the spirit of the world.” Just as literal air is everywhere, ready to be breathed in, so “the spirit of the world” is always present. It exerts “authority,” or power, over most of mankind. The power of this dominant mental attitude lies in its appeal to the sinful flesh, its subtlety, its relentlessness and, like air, its pervasiveness. Those who are alienated from God and who pursue a course contrary to God’s will are here called “the sons of disobedience.”

the sons of disobedience: See study note on Ac 4:36.

we were naturally children of wrath: Adam willfully disobeyed God, bringing sin and death to all his descendants. (Ro 5:12, 19) This inherited imperfection made them “naturally,” or by nature, “children of wrath,” who merit God’s disfavor and who deserve death. (De 32:5; Ro 2:5; 3:10; Eph 5:6; Col 1:21; 3:6) However, they are no longer “children of wrath” because they resist their inherent, sinful inclination and accept the merciful provision of becoming reconciled to him. (Joh 3:36) “Because of his great love,” God provided “the ransom paid by Christ Jesus.”​—Eph 2:4, 5; Ro 3:23, 24.

in the heavenly places: Though Paul uses this expression at Eph 1:20 to refer to God’s dwelling place in heaven, here he speaks of spirit-anointed Christians as already raised up and seated “together in the heavenly places” while they are still on earth. As at Eph 1:3, that is because God “assigned [them] as heirs” with his Son in the heavenly inheritance and gave them a token of that inheritance. (Eph 1:11, 13, 14) They were thereby brought forth, or born again, and became Jehovah’s spirit-anointed sons (Joh 1:12, 13; 3:5-7), which also made them Jesus’ brothers (Ro 8:15; Eph 1:5) and “joint heirs with Christ.”​—Ro 8:17; Eph 1:11; see study note on Eph 1:3.

the coming systems of things: Or “the coming ages.” Here the plural form of the Greek word ai·onʹ, often rendered “system of things,” is used. In this context, it refers to the future time when anointed Christians will reign with Christ Jesus and experience God’s undeserved kindness. (Compare Eph 1:18-23; Heb 6:4, 5.) The expression “the coming systems of things” is plural. This indicates that there will be systems of things, or ages with certain characteristics, within the overall “coming system of things.” (See study notes on Mr 10:30; 1Co 10:11.) It could be compared with the Jewish system of things under the Law covenant, which embraced several systems that were interrelated and contemporaneous.​—See Glossary, “System(s) of things.”

graciousness: Or “favor; generosity.” The Greek word used here is also rendered “kindness.”​—Ro 2:4; 11:22.

We are God’s handiwork: Or “We are a product of His work.” God brought forth spirit-anointed Christians as “a new creation” in union with Christ Jesus. (See study notes on 2Co 5:17; Ga 6:15.) The Greek word here rendered “handiwork” is used of the physical creation at Ro 1:20, where it is translated “the things made.” The expression may convey the idea of the work of a skilled craftsman.

the ones called “uncircumcision”: That is, non-Jews.

those called “circumcision”: That is, Jews.​—See study note on Ro 2:25.

alienated from the state of Israel: Before coming to know God’s purposes, some Ephesian Christians had been uncircumcised “people of the nations.” (Eph 2:11) As such, they were alienated from the nation that had a special relationship with God. (Ex 19:5, 6; 1Ki 8:53) The non-Israelite nations had neither a knowledge of God’s dealings nor an approved standing with him.

you had no hope and were without God: The Gentile Christians, like the Jews, were sinners who descended from sinful Adam. However, Christ Jesus’ sacrifice opened the way for those of the non-Jewish nations to have a close relationship with God and the sure hope of everlasting life.​—Eph 1:7; 2:13.

the two groups: That is, Jews and non-Jews.​—Eph 2:11.

the wall in between: Lit., “the middle wall.” This is likely an allusion to the wall in the first-century temple in Jerusalem that “fenced . . . off,” or prevented, the Gentile worshippers from entering the inner courtyards. These courtyards were open only to Jews. According to the Mishnah, that wall was a latticed barrier called the Soreg. (See App. B11.) Josephus wrote that the wall was three cubits (1.3 m; 4.3 ft) high and that it carried signs in Greek and Latin warning non-Jews not to pass beyond it under penalty of death. When Paul wrote this letter, he was in prison because he was accused of taking a non-Jew from Ephesus beyond this wall. So the Ephesians may have been acquainted with it. (Ac 21:28-31; 28:30, 31; Eph 3:1) The literal wall in Jerusalem was still standing. So when Paul spoke of “the wall” being destroyed, he was referring, not to the literal wall, but to the Law covenant, which divided Jews from Gentiles. That symbolic wall was abolished some 30 years earlier on the basis of Christ’s death.

through the torture stake: Here the term “torture stake” (Greek, stau·rosʹ) is used to represent Jesus’ death on the execution stake. Jesus’ death was the basis for removing the Law, which was a barrier that separated the Jews from the non-Jews. Therefore, by accepting the reconciliation made possible by Jesus’ death, both peoples, Jews and non-Jews, could become “one body . . . through the torture stake.”​—See also Col 1:20 and Glossary, “Stake”; “Torture stake.”

himself: Or possibly, “it,” that is, the torture stake.​—Col 1:20; 2:13, 14.

by one spirit: That is, by means of God’s holy spirit.

you are fellow citizens of the holy ones: Paul assured Gentile Christians in Ephesus that their spiritual status had changed. They were no longer strangers and foreigners with limited rights. Rather, they had become “fellow citizens of the holy ones” with common aims, obligations, and identities. They were now part of a new spiritual nation and had the same citizenship as the other holy ones. (See Php 3:20 and study note.) Christ destroyed the wall, “the Law of commandments,” that had fenced off Gentiles from Jews, giving both peoples free access to the Father through Christ.​—Eph 2:14-18; see study note on Eph 2:14.

members of the household of God: Paul uses the expression “members of the household” to illustrate how the anointed members of the Christian congregation were organized as a close family unit. (1Ti 3:15) In a godly household, members of the family show respect for the family head as well as for the arrangements and standards that he sets for the household. Similarly, the members of the first-century congregations felt a close spiritual kinship with one another and respected Jehovah’s arrangements regarding the congregation.​—See study note on Ga 6:10.

the foundation cornerstone: This expression occurs only twice in the Christian Greek Scriptures, here and at 1Pe 2:6. Jesus is “the foundation cornerstone” of the Christian congregation, which Paul likens to a building. (Eph 2:21) The Greek term rendered “foundation cornerstone” occurs once in the Septuagint, in the Messianic prophecy at Isa 28:16. There Jehovah foretold that he would lay “as a foundation in Zion a tested stone, the precious cornerstone of a sure foundation.” Peter quotes from this prophecy and applies the expression to Jesus. (1Pe 2:4-6) The foundation cornerstone in public buildings and city walls was placed where two walls met. It bound together the other stones. For the building to be properly constructed, all the stones had to conform to the cornerstone.

being harmoniously joined together: This expression emphasizes the need for unity in the Christian congregation. (See “Introduction to Ephesians.”) Both Jewish and Gentile believers could unitedly approach Jehovah; all of them could have holy spirit; and together they were part of a spiritual temple, “a place for God to inhabit by spirit.”​—Eph 2:22; see Eph 4:16, where Paul uses the same expression (“harmoniously joined together”) when he likens the Christian congregation to a human body.

a holy temple for Jehovah: The Christian congregation is considered a house or a temple built on the foundation of the apostles and the prophets, with Christ Jesus as the foundation cornerstone. (Eph 2:20) At Eph 2:19, 22, this congregation is described as “the household of God” and “a place for God to inhabit by spirit.” Paul uses similar wording in his letters to the Corinthians.​—2Co 6:16; see study notes on 1Co 3:16; 6:19; for the use of the divine name in this verse, see App. C3 introduction; Eph 2:21.