Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe—Unakantha Ulaya M’Nyengo Zapakati

Yolembedwa ndi mtolankhani wa Galamukani! ku France

Chinali chaka cha 1347. Mliriwu unali utasakaza kale anthu m’mayiko a ku Far East. Tsopano unali utafalikira kum’maŵa kwa midzi ya ku Ulaya.

ANTHU otchedwa Amongol anali kuzungulira likulu la malonda lotetezedwa la anthu otchedwa Agenoa limene linkatchulidwa kuti Kaffa, ndipo tsopano limatchedwa kuti Feodosiya, ku chilumba cha Crimea. Pakuti Amongol nawonso anafa nawo kwambiri matendawa, anayamba aleka kaye nkhondoyo. Koma asanachoke, anaponya muvi woopsa wamaferano. Pogwiritsa ntchito zida zikuluzikulu zoponyera miyala, iwo anaponyera anthu ongofa kumenewo mkati mwa mpanda wa mzindawo. Kenaka Agenoa ochepa amene anali kutetezawo anakwera sitima zawo kuti athaŵe m’mudziwu umene panthaŵiyo unali utakwanira ndi mliriwu ndipo anafalitsa mliriwu kumagombe onse amene anali kudutsako.

Pakutha kwa miyezi ingapo Ulaya yense anali atadzazidwa ndi imfa. Mliriwu unafalikira mofulumira ku North Africa, Italy, Spain, England, France, Austria, Hungary, Switzerland, Germany, Scandinavia, ndi mayiko a chi Baltic. M’zaka zongopitirira ziŵiri basi, anthu opitirira gawo limodzi mwa magawo anayi alionse a anthu a ku Ulaya, ndiponso anthu ena 25 miliyoni, anali atafa chifukwa cha matendawa amene atchedwa kuti “tsoka lopulula anthu mwankhanza koposa lina lililonse lodziŵika kwa anthu”—ndiwo Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe. *

Kuika Maziko a Tsoka

Tsoka la Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe si kuti linangothera pa nthendayo. Zinthu zingapo zinathandiza kuchulukitsa vutoli, china chinali makani a zipembedzo. Chitsanzo chimodzi ndicho chiphunzitso cha purigatoriyo. “Mmene zaka za m’ma 1200 zinali kufika kumapeto, chiphunzitso cha puligatoliyo chinafala ponseponse,” anatero wolemba mbiri wina wa ku France Jacques le Goff. Kumayambiriro kwa zaka za m’ma 1300, Dante anapanga buku lake lotchedwa The Divine Comedy, lolongosola mwatsatanetsatane za helo ndi puligatoliyo. Choncho panayambika maganizo a chipembedzo amene modabwitsa anapangitsa kuti anthu aziona kuti sangathe kuupeŵa mliriwo m’pang’ono pomwe, poganiza kuti unali monga chilango chochokera kwa Mulungu mwini. Ndipo malingana ndi mmene tionere, maganizo osafuna kuchitapo kanthu ameneŵa kwenikweni anachititsa kuti matendawa afale. “Palibenso chinthu china choposa zimenezi chimene chikadachititsa kuti mliriwo ufale,” likutero buku lotchedwa The Black Death, lolembedwa ndi Philip Ziegler.

Ndiye ku Ulaya kunalinso vuto lopitirira la kukanika kwa mbewu. Zimenezi zinachititsa anthu a m’dera limeneli amenenso anali kuchulukirachulukira kuti asoŵe chakudya, motero n’kulephera kulimbana ndi matenda.

Mliriwu Ufalikira

Malingana ndi zimene ananena dokotala wa Papa Clement VI, Guy de Chauliac, ku Ulaya kunali mitundu iŵiri ya mliriwu: mtundu wa pneumonic ndi  wa bubonic. Iye analongosola zizindikiro za matenda ameneŵa mwatsatanetsatane polemba kuti: “Woyamba unakhala kwa miyezi iŵiri, ndipo wodwala ankamva malungo osatha ndiponso ankalavula magazi, ndipo wodwalayo ankafa akangodwala masiku atatu. Wachiŵiri unakhala kwa nyengo yonse imene mliriwu unakhalapo, ndipo wodwala ankamva malungo mosaleka koma ankatulukanso zilonda za mafinya kunja kwa thupi, makamaka m’khwapa ndi m’phechepeche. Wodwala ankafa pakatha masiku asanu.” Madokotala analephera kuletsa kufala kwa mliriwu.

Anthu ambiri anathaŵa pochita mantha, ndipo ankasiya anthu zikwizikwi odwala matendawa. Inde, ena mwa amene anayamba kuthaŵa anali anthu apamwamba achuma ndi akatswiri pa ntchito zina. Ngakhale kuti abusa ena nawonso anathaŵa, anthu ambiri otumikira chipembedzo anabisala m’nyumba za amonke, pokhulupirira kuti potero apeŵa mliriwo.

Mkati mwa nthaŵi yoopsayi, papa analengeza kuti chaka cha 1350 ndi Chaka Choyera. Apaulendo wachipembedzo opita ku Rome akadaloledwa kukangoloŵeratu kuparadaiso popanda kukadzera kaye ku purigatoriyo! Apaulendo wachipembedzo mazana ambiri anamvera kuitana kumeneku, ndipo izi zinachititsa kuti afalitse mliriwu pa maulendo ameneŵa.

Zoyesayesa Zosapindula Kanthu

Zoyesayesa zakuti athane ndi Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe sizinapindule kanthu chifukwa chakuti panalibe aliyense amene anadziŵa mmene unkafalira. Anthu ambiri anali kudziŵa kuti kukhudzana ndi munthu wodwala matendawa kapena zovala zake zokha, kunali koopsa. Ena ankaopa ngakhale kungoyang’anizana ndi wodwalayo! Komabe, anthu a ku Florence, Italy, ananena kuti chinkachititsa mliriwo anali amphaka ndi agalu awo. Anapha nyama zimenezi, chifukwa chosadziŵa kuti potero, akupereka mpata kwa makoswe, amene anali kufalitsa mliriwu.

Pamene imfa zinali kuchulukirachulukira, ena anatembenukira kwa Mulungu kuti awathandize. Amuna ndi akazi anapereka zinthu zawo zonse ku tchalitchi, poganizira kuti akatero Mulungu adzawateteza ku matendawo, kapena apo ayi adzawapatsa mphotho ya moyo wakumwamba ngati atafa. Zimenezi zinapezetsa tchalitchi chuma chochuluka zedi. Zinthu zina zimene zinatchuka monga zolimbanirana ndi mliriwu zinali zithumwa za mwayi, tizifanizo ta Kristu, ndiponso njirisi zovala m’mikono ndi m’khosi. Anthu ena anatembenukira ku zikhulupiriro, matsenga, ndiponso mankhwala osatsimikizika pofuna kuchira. Mafuta onunkhiritsa, mandimu, ndiponso mankhwala ena apadera ankati amathaŵitsa nthendayo. Kuchotsa magazi kunalinso njira ina yotchuka. Gawo la anthu ophunzira za mankhwala la Yunivesite ya Paris mpaka linanena kuti mliriwo unadza chifukwa cha mmene mapulaneti anakhalira! Komabe, zifukwa zosamvekazi ndiponso “njira zochizira,” sizinathandize m’njira iliyonse pochepetsa mliri wakuphawu.

Zotsatira Zokhalitsa

Patatha zaka zisanu Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe unaoneka kuti unafika kumapeto. Komabe zaka zana zimenezo zisanathe unatulukiranso kokwana nthaŵi zinayi. Choncho, zotsatira za Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe zayerekezedwa ndi zotsatira za nkhondo yoyamba yapadziko lonse. “Palibe kutsutsana kulikonse pakati pa olemba mbiri amakono pa nkhani yakuti kubwera kwa mliriwu kunakhudza kwambiri chuma ndiponso anthu pambuyo pa 1348,” likutero buku la m’1996 lotchedwa The Black Death in England. Mliriwu unapha anthu ambiri a kumeneko, ndipo panatha zaka mazana ambiri kuti madera ena akhalenso monga mmene analili kale. Chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa anthu ogwira ntchito, mtengo wolipirira antchito unakwera wokha. Eni malo amene poyamba anali olemera anasauka, ndipo boma la mafumu aku Ulaya ameneŵa, limene linali chizindikiro cha Nyengo Zapakati linatheratu.

Motero, mliriwu unapangitsa kusintha kwa ndale, chipembedzo, ndi chikhalidwe cha anthu. Mliriwu usanayambe Chifalansa ndicho chinali kulankhulidwa mofala pakati pa anthu ophunzira ku England. Komabe, kufa kwa aphunzitsi ambiri a Chifalansa,  kunachititsa kuti Chingerezi chikhale chofunika koposa Chifalansa ku Britain. Zosintha zina zinali za chipembedzo. Monga mmene ananenera wolemba mbiri wina wa ku France Jacqueline Brossollet, chifukwa cha kuchepa kwa ofuna kuyamba ubusa, “tchalitchi nalo linali kungophunzitsa mbuli ndiponso anthu opanda chidwi.” Brossollet ananenetsa kuti “kuloŵa pansi kwa malo ophunzirira [a tchalitchi] ndiponso chikhulupiriro ndicho chinali chimodzi mwa zifukwa zimene zinayambitsa nyengo ya kukonzanso zinthu yotchedwa Reformation.”

Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe unakhudzadi kwambiri ntchito za luso, kuchititsa kuti imfa ikhale nkhani yaikulu yopezeka m’zochitachita zaluso. Gule wotchuka wotchedwa gule wa imfa, amene nthaŵi zambiri amaimira mafupa ndiponso mtembo wa munthu, anafala kwambiri monga phiphiritso la mphamvu ya imfa. Pokayikira za m’tsogolo, anthu ambiri amene anapulumuka Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe anasiyiratu kudziletsa kulikonse pa makhalidwe awo. Motero makhalidwe abwino analoŵa pansi kwambiri. Ndipo pakuti tchalitchi nalo linalephera kuthetsa Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe, “munthu wa m’nyengo zapakati anali kuona kuti Tchalitchi chake chamukhumudwitsa.” (Buku lotchedwa The Black Death) Olemba mbiri ena amanenanso kuti kusintha kwa kakhalidwe ka anthu kumene kunadza ndi Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe  kunadzetsa kudzidalira mopambanitsa, ngakhalenso kuchita zinthu zopindulitsa ndiponso kuyenda bwino kwa maubwenzi ndi chuma. Zinthu zimenezi ndizo zinayambitsa mchitidwe wakuti anthu aziyendetsa chuma chawo paokha wotchedwa capitalism.

Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe unachititsanso maboma kukhazikitsa njira zoona kuti anthu akukhala mwaukhondo. Pamene mliriwo unati zii, mzinda wa Venice unakhazikitsa mfundo zakuti misewu yake aiyeretse. Mfumu John Yachiŵiri ya ku France, yotchedwa kuti Wabwino, mofananamo inalamula kuti misewu ya m’mizinda aiyeretse monga njira yoletsera mliriwo. Mfumuyo inachita zimenezi itamva kuti kale panali dokotala wachigiriki amene anapulumutsa anthu a mu mzinda wa Athens ku mliri poyeretsa ndi kutsuka misewu yake. Misewu yambiri ya m’Nyengo Zapakati imene poyamba inadzaza ndi zinyalala, tsopano inayeretsedwa.

Kodi N’zakale?

Komabe, pofika m’chaka cha 1894 m’pamene katswiri wa sayansi ya tizilombo totchedwa mabakiteriya wa ku France dzina lake Alexandre Yersin anapeza kachilombo kamene kamayambitsa Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe. Anakatcha dzina lakuti Yersinia Pestis potengera dzina lake. Patatha zaka zinayi munthu winanso wa ku France, Paul-Louis Simond, anatulukira kuti nthata za makoswe zimathandizanso m’njira ina kufalitsa matendawo. Posachedwa anakonza katemera amene anathandiza kumlingo wochepera.

Kodi mliriwu ndi wakale? Ayi ndithu. M’nyengo yozizira ya 1910, anthu 50,000 anafa chifukwa cha mliriwu ku Manchuria. Ndipo chaka chilichonse bungwe la World Health Organization limapeza odwala ambiri atsopano, ndipo chiŵerengerochi chikumka chikula. Kwapezedwanso mitundu yatsopano ya matendawa, imene ili yovuta kuichiza. Inde, anthu akapanda kutsata mfundo zikuluzikulu zaukhondo, mliriwu udzaopsezabe mtundu wa anthu. Motero buku lotchedwa Pourquoi la peste? Le rat, la puce et le bubon (Mliriwu Wakhaliraponji? Khoswe, Nthata, ndi Mwanabele), lolembedwa ndi Jacqueline Brossollet ndi Henri Mollaret, linatsiriza ndi mawu akuti “si kuti anali chabe matenda a ku Ulaya wakale m’Nyengo Zapakati, . . . tanong’oneza bondo chifukwa mwina udzakhalanso mliri wam’tsogolo.”

[Mawu a M’munsi]

[Mawu Otsindika patsamba 15]

Amuna ndi akazi anapereka zinthu zawo zonse ku tchalitchi, poganizira kuti akatero Mulungu adzawateteza ku matendawo

[Bokosi/Chithunzi patsamba 16]

Chipembedzo cha Odzikwapula

Poona mliriwo monga chilango chochokera kwa Mulungu, anthu ena anaganiza zophwetsa mkwiyo wa Mulungu podzikwapula. Gulu lachipembedzo lotchedwa Abale Odzikwapula, akuti linali ndi anthu okwana 800,000, ndipo linafika potchuka kwambiri panthaŵi ya Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswe. Malamulo a gululi ankaletsa kuyankhulana ndi akazi, kusamba, kapena kusintha zobvala. Ankadzikwapula pagulu kaŵiri patsiku.

“Kudzikwapula ndiyo inali njira imodzi mwa njira zochepa zodzitsitsira mtima kwa anthu odzazidwa ndi mantha ameneŵa,” linatero buku lotchedwa Medieval Heresy. Odzikwapulawa analinso patsogolo polimbana ndi mchitidwe wopindulitsa wa tchalitchi womakhululukira machimo polandira mphatso. Choncho, n’zosadabwitsa kuti mu 1349 papa analetsa gululo. Komabe potsiriza gululi linatha lokha Mliri wa Matenda a Makoswewo utatha.

[Chithunzi]

Odzikwapula anaganiza kuti aphwetse mkwiyo wa Mulungu

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

© Bibliothèque Royale de Belgique, Bruxelles

[Chithunzi patsamba 17]

Mliriwu mu mzinda wa Marseilles, ku France

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

© Cliché Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Paris

[Chithunzi patsamba 17]

Alexandre Yersin anatulukira kachilombo koyambitsa mliriwu

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Culver Pictures