Zaka 100 Zachiwawa

ALFRED NOBEL ankakhulupirira kuti anthu angapitirize kukhala pamtendere ngati mayiko atakhala ndi zida zoopsa. Chifukwatu zitatere ndiye kuti mayiko angathe kugwirizana mwamsanga n’kuseseratu mpaka chipere aliyense wowaukira. Iye analemba kuti: “Zimenezi zingachititse kuti pasakhalenso nkhondo.” Maganizo a Nobel anali akuti, palibe dziko la anthu oganiza bwinobwino limene lingayambire dala nkhondo ngati likudziŵa kuti mapeto ake nkhondoyo iwonongetsanso kwambiri dzikolo. Koma kodi zaka 100 zapitazi zasonyeza chiyani?

Pasanathe n’komwe zaka makumi aŵiri Nobel atafa, nkhondo yoyamba yapadziko lonse inayamba. Pa nkhondo imeneyi mayiko anagwiritsa ntchito zida zoopsa kwambiri kuphatikizapo mfuti zoomba zipolopolo molumikizana, mphweya wakupha, mfuti zoponya moto, akasinja, ndege zankhondo, ndi sitima zankhondo zoyenda pansi pa madzi. Asilikali pafupifupi mamiliyoni khumi anaphedwa, ndipo enanso opitirira mamiliyoni makumi aŵiri anavulala kwambiri. Anthu ataona nkhanza zoopsa za nkhondo imeneyi anayamba kuganiziranso zamtendere. Zimenezi zinawachititsa kuti apange bungwe lotchedwa League of Nations. Mtsogoleri wa dziko la United States panthaŵiyo a Woodrow Wilson, amene anathandiza nawo kwambiri popanga bungwe limeneli, analandira mphoto ya Nobel ya zamtendere m’chaka cha 1919.

Koma zoti nkhondo ingadzatheretu zinaiwalika mu 1939, pamene nkhondo yachiŵiri ya padziko lonse inayamba. M’njira zambiri nkhondo imeneyi inali yoopsa kwambiri kuposa nkhondo yoyamba ya padziko lonse. Pankhondo imeneyi Adolf  Hitler anakulitsa fakitale ya Nobel yomwe inali m’tauni ya Krümmel n’kuisandutsa kampani yaikulu kwambiri yopanga zida ku Germany, yokhala ndi antchito 9,000. Kenaka, pamene nkhondoyo inkatha n’kuti ndege zankhondo za mayiko olimbana ndi dziko la Germany zitaphwasuliratu fakitale ya Nobel ndi mabomba opitirira 1000. N’zochititsanso chidwi kuti mabomba amene ndegezi zinaphulitsa anawapanga mothandizidwa ndi nzeru zochokera kwa Nobel yemweyo.

Zaka 100 zimene zadutsa Nobel atafa, pakhala nkhondo ziŵiri zapadziko lonse komanso nkhondo zina zosaŵerengeka zocheperapo. Zida zachulukanso kwambiri panthaŵi imeneyi, ndipo zina n’zoopsa kwambiri. Taganizirani zida zochepa chabe zimene zakhala zikutchuka m’zaka makumi angapo chimwalirireni Nobel.

Zida zing’onozing’ono ndiponso zida zonyamulika. Izi ndi zida monga mfuti zamtundu wa pisitole, mfuti zina zazikulupo, mabomba oponya ndi manja, mfuti zoomba zipolopolo molumikiza, mfuti zoponyera mabomba, ndi zida zinanso zotere. Zida zing’onozing’ono ndiponso zida zonyamulika sizokwera mtengo, sizivuta kusamalira, ndiponso sizivuta kugwiritsa ntchito.

Kodi masiku ano anthu akuleka kuchita nkhondo chifukwa chakuti pali zida zimenezi ndiponso chifukwa chakuti zimawachititsa mantha? Ayi ndithu! M’magazini yotchedwa Bulletin of Atomic Scientists, Michael Klare analemba kuti zida zonyamulika ndizo “zida zimene zagwiritsidwa ntchito kwambiri pambuyo pa mkangano wa dziko la America ndi mayiko ogwirizana a ku Russia.” Kwenikweni pafupifupi anthu 90 pa 100 alionse amene anavulala m’nkhondo zaposachedwapa anavulazidwa ndi zida zimenezi. Anthu opitirira mamiliyoni anayi anaphedwa ndi zida zimenezi m’zaka za m’ma 1990 zokha. Nthaŵi zambiri achinyamata osaphunzitsidwa usilikali ndiponso osaganizira za malamulo ankhondo ndiwo amagwiritsa ntchito zida zimenezi.

Mabomba okwirira. M’mene timamaliza zaka 100 zoyambira pa chaka cha 1900, tsiku lililonse anthu pafupifupi 70 anali kulemazidwa kapena kuphedwa ndi mabomba okwirira! Ambiri mwa iwo anali anthu wamba osati asilikali. Nthaŵi zambiri mabomba okwirira sawatchera n’cholinga chopha anthu koma kuwalemaza ndi kuchititsa nthumanzi anthu amene amakhudzidwa ndi zoopsa zimene mabombaŵa amachita.

N’zoona kuti m’zaka zapitazi anthu ayesetsa kwambiri kuchotsa mabomba okwirira. Koma anthu ena amati bomba limodzi likachotsedwa, enanso 20 amakwiriridwa ndiponso akuti n’kutheka kuti padziko lonse pali mabomba okwirira okwana 60 miliyoni. Anthu opanga mabomba sanasiyebe kupanga mabomba oopsaŵa ngakhale kuti  akudziŵa bwinobwino kuti mabombaŵa sasiyanitsa pakati pa phazi la msilikali ndi la mwana amene akungoseŵera panja.

Zida za nyukiliya. Kutulukira zida za nyukiliya kwachititsa kuti tsopano ankhondo azitha kuwonongeratu mzinda wathunthu m’timphindi tochepa chabe, asananene n’komwe mawu alionse opweteketsana mtima. Mwachitsanzo taganizirani mmene mabomba amene anawaponya mu 1945 ku Hiroshima ndi Nagasaki anawonongera zinthu. Anthu ena anachita khungu chifukwa cha kuwala kosati n’kuyang’anako kaŵiri. Ena anafa chifukwa cha mpweya wa poizoni. Ambiri anafa chifukwa cha moto ndiponso kutentha. Akuti anthu onse amene anafa m’mizinda iŵiri imeneyi anakwana pafupifupi 300,000!

N’zoona kuti ena anganene kuti pophulitsa mizinda imeneyi anthu ambiri anapulumuka amene akanaphedwa ngati nkhondoyi ikanapitirira akugwiritsa ntchito zida wamba. Komabe, pogwidwa nthumanzi chifukwa cha anthu ambirimbiri amene anaphedwa, anthu ena anayamba kupempha andale ndi akuluakulu ena padziko lonse kuti aletse kugwiritsa ntchito zida zoopsazi. N’zoona, anthu ambiri anayamba kuchita mantha poganizira kuti tsopano anthu apanga chida chimene chingathe kupha anthu onse padziko lapansi.

Kodi zikuoneka kuti mtendere ungakhalepo chifukwa cha kupangidwa kwa zida za nyukiliya? Anthu ena amati inde. Amatero ati chifukwa chakuti zida zamphamvu zimenezi sizinagwiritsidwepo ntchito pankhondo iliyonse kwa zaka zopitirira 50 tsopano. Komabe, zimene Nobel ankakhulupirira zakuti zida zoopsa kwambiri zingathe kuletsa nkhondo si zikusonyeza kuti n’zoona, chifukwa chakuti nkhondo  zikumenyedwabe ndi zida wamba. Komanso, bungwe loyang’anira nkhani zokhudza zida za nyukiliya lotchedwa Committee on Nuclear Policy linati, zida za nyukiliya zambirimbiri zimangokhala zili zotcheratchera nthaŵi ina iliyonse. Komanso masiku ano anthu akungokhala nkhaŵa ili bii poganizira za uchigaŵenga, motero ambiri mitima yawo ikungokhala ili m’malere poopa zimene zingachitike ngati zigaŵenga zitapeza zida zopangira mabomba a nyukiliya. Ndipo ngakhale zidazi zitakhala m’manja mwa anthu amene amati ndi “oyenerera” anthu amadabe nkhaŵa kuti ngati atangophuluza n’kuchita ngozi imodzi yokha, dzikoli lingaloŵe m’vuto lalikulu kwambiri lobwera chifukwa cha zida za nyukiliya zimenezi. N’zoonekeratu kuti umenewu si ndiwo mtendere umene Nobel ankauganizira pogwiritsa ntchito zida zowononga.

Zida za tizilombo todwalitsa ndiponso zida za poizoni. Pankhondo yogwiritsa ntchito tizilombo todwalitsa amagwiritsa ntchito tizilombo toopsa monga toyambitsa matenda a anthrax, kapenanso tizilombo tina monga toyambitsa nthomba. Matenda a nthomba ndi oopsa kwambiri, makamaka chifukwa chakuti n’ngosavuta kupatsirana. Ndiye anthu akuopanso zida za mankhwala akupha, monga gasi wapoizoni. Mankhwala akupha ameneŵa alipo amitundu yosiyanasiyana, ndipo ngakhale kuti akhala akuletsedwa kwa zaka zambiri, anthu sanasiye kuwagwiritsa ntchito.

Kodi zida zoopsazi ndiponso mantha amene anthu amakhala nawo akamaziganizira achititsa kuti anthuwo achite zimene Nobel ankaganiza, ponena kuti “angadzachite mantha n’kutula pansi zida zawo”? Ayi ndithu, izo zikungowonjezera mantha a anthu akuti n’kutheka kuti mwina tsiku lina anthu adzagwiritsa ntchito zida zimenezi, mwinanso angadzakhale anthu osazidziŵa bwinobwino. Zaka zopitirira khumi zapitazo, mkulu wa bungwe loona zoletsa zida ku United States ananena kuti: “Munthu aliyense  angathe kupanga zida za mankhwala akupha malinga ngati anafika kusukulu ya sekondale n’kuphunzirako sayansi ya zamankhwala.”

N’zosachita kufunsa kuti zaka za m’ma 1900 zinali zodzaza ndi nkhondo zowononga kwambiri kuposa nkhondo za nthaŵi ina iliyonse kumbuyoku. Tsopano tikuyamba zaka 100 zoyambira chaka cha 2000 ndipo zamtendere zikukayikitsa kwambiri kuposa kale lonse, makamaka poganiziranso za uchigaŵenga umene unachitika ku New York City ndi ku Washington, D.C. pa September 11, 2001. Steven Levy analemba m’magazini ya Newsweek kuti: “Pafupifupi munthu wina aliyense sangachite kufunsa kuti adziŵe ngati njira zapamwamba zaumisiri ziyambenso kugwiritsidwa ntchito m’njira zoipa.” Iye ananenanso kuti: “Kodi ndani amene angadziŵe njira yothetsera vuto limeneli? Anthu amakonda kuchita zinthu zimene amaganiza kuti n’chitukuko ndipo pambuyo pake m’pamene amayamba kuganizira bwino zochita zawozo. Anthufe sitifuna kuganiza kuti chinachake choopsa mosaneneka chingathe kuchitika komano timachita zinthu zimene zingathe kuchititsa zoopsazi.”

Choncho tikunena pano, tikamaona zimene zinachitika m’mbuyomu timaphunzirapo kuti kutulukira nzeru yopangira onga wa mizinga ndiponso zida zoopsa sikunapangitse dziko lino kukhala pamtendere ngakhale pang’ono. Kodi pamenepa ndiye kuti mtendere wapadziko lonse n’ngosatheka?

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Kuchepetsako Mphamvu za Mankhwala a Nitroglycerin

M’chaka cha 1846 katswiri wina wa ku Italy wa sayansi ya zamankhwala dzina lake Ascanio Sobrero anatulukira mankhwala amafuta amadzimadzi komanso olemera ndipo amatha kuphulika, otchedwa nitroglycerin. Mankhwalaŵa anaoneka kuti anali oopsa kwambiri. Sobrero anachekeka kwambiri kumaso ndi magalasi amene anaphwanyika mankhwalaŵa ataphulika, ndipo pamapeto pake anangosiya kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwalaŵa. Chinanso chinali chakuti mankhwala amadzimadzi ameneŵa anali ndi vuto limene Sobrero sankalimvetsa bwinobwino chifukwa ankati akawathira pansi n’kuwamenya ndi hamala, pamene amenya pokhapo m’pamene pankaphulika, koma kwina konse kumene mafutawo anali atayenderera osaphulika ayi.

Nobel anapeza njira yothetsera vutoli atatulukira njira yabwino yophulitsira bomba yogwiritsa ntchito mankhwala ochepa chabe omwe amatha kugwira moto pobutsa moto pa mankhwala ena ochuluka amtundu wina amenenso amagwira moto. Kenaka m’chaka cha 1865, Nobel anatulukira kabotolo kophulitsira zinthu kamene kankakhala ndi onga ndipo ankakaika m’kachitini kokhala ndi mankhwala a nitroglycerin komanso kachingwe kophulitsira mzingawu koloŵa m’kachitinika.

Komabe zinali zoopsa kugwiritsa ntchito mankhwala a nitroglycerin. Mwachitsanzo, m’chaka cha 1864, fakitale ya Nobel imene inali kunja kwa mzinda wa Stockholm inaphulika anthu asanu n’kufa, ndipo pagulu la anthu amene anafawo panalinso mng’ono wake wotsiriza wa Nobel, dzina lake Emil. Fakitale ya Nobel ku Krümmel ku Germany, inaphulikaponso kaŵiri. Komanso anthu ena ankagwiritsa ntchito mankhwalaŵa monga mafuta anyale, polishi wa nsapato, kapena monga girizi wa mawiro a ngolo, ndipo mapeto ake ankaona zoopsa kwambiri. Ngakhale akamaswa miyala m’mapiri, mafuta ena amankhwalaŵa ankaloŵerera m’ming’alu ya m’miyala ndipo kenaka ankachititsa ngozi zina.

M’chaka cha 1867, Nobel anapeza njira yolimbitsira mafutaŵa powaphatikiza ndi mankhwala ena otchedwa kieselguhr, amene saphulika. Mzinga umenewu Nobel anaupatsa dzina lakuti dynamite lochokera ku mawu achigiriki akuti dynamis, amene amatanthauza kuti “mphamvu.” Ngakhale kuti atatero Nobel anapanganso mizinga ina yoposa pamenepa, anthu amaona kuti mzinga wa dynamite ndi umodzi wa zinthu zofunika kwambiri zimene anatulukira.

Tineneponso apa kuti mizinga ya Nobel yakhala ikugwiritsidwanso ntchito m’njira zina osati pankhondo pokha. Mwachitsanzo, anaigwiritsa ntchito kwambiri pomanga ngalande yotchedwa St. Gotthard (kuyambira mu 1872 mpaka 1882), pamene ankaswa zimiyala zapansi pa madzi mumtsinje wotchedwa East wa ku New York (mu 1876 ndi 1885), ndiponso pokumba doko la Corinth ku Greece (kuyambira mu 1881 mpaka 1893). Komabe, kuchokera panthaŵi imene anatulukira mizinga ya dynamite, mizingayo inangotchuka mwamsanga kuti ndi yowononga ndiponso yakupha.

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Malo a apolisi ku Colombia amene anagumulidwa ndi mizinga ya dynamite yongopanga anthu, osati yeniyeni

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© Reuters NewMedia Inc./CORBIS

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Pasanathe zaka 20 Nobel atangomwalira, anthu anayamba kugwiritsa ntchito zida zoopsa kwambiri pa nkhondo yoyamba ya padziko lonse

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Chithunzi cha U.S. National Archives

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Anthu ovulazidwa ndi mabomba okwirira ku Cambodia, Iraq, ndi ku Azerbaijan

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UN/DPI Photo 186410C by P.S. Sudhakaran

UN/DPI Photo 158314C by J. Isaac

UN/DPI Photo by Armineh Johannes

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Malingana ndi zimene bungwe loyang’anira nkhani zokhudza zida za nyukiliya lotchedwa Committee on Nuclear Policy linanena, akuti nthaŵi ina iliyonse, zida zambirimbiri za nyukiliya zimakhala zili zotcheratchera

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UNITED NATIONS/PHOTO BY SYGMA

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Kuopsa kwa zida za mankhwala akupha kunafalitsidwa kwambiri pamene gasi woopsa wotchedwa “sarin” anaphulitsidwa pa siteshoni ya sitima ya pansi panthaka mumzinda wa Tokyo, m’chaka cha 1995

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Asahi Shimbun/Sipa Press

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UN/DPI Photo 158198C by J. Isaac