Mafuta—Kodi Timawapeza Bwanji?

“KUYERE.” M’ma 1800 anthu a ku United States anali kufuna zinthu zatsopano zoika m’nyali kuti ziloŵe m’malo mwa mafuta a nyama za pamtunda, za m’madzi, ndi zinthu zina zomwe zinkawalitsa nyali mophethiraphethira. Kodi vutoli akanalithetsa bwanji? Akanalithetsa ndi mafuta a pansi panthaka. Kodi mafutaŵa akanapezeka kuti?

Mu 1859, Edwin L. Drake, yemwe anali atapuma ntchito ya ukondakitala wa sitima yapamtunda, anagwiritsa ntchito injini yakale yoyendera nthunzi n’kukumba chitsime chozama mamita 22 kufika pa mafuta a pansi panthaka omwe anali oyambirira kuwapeza pafupi ndi mzinda wa Titusville, ku Pennsylvania, ku United States. Mafuta a pansi panthaka anayambira pamenepo kutchuka. Mafutaŵa atayamba kupezeka m’mayiko ochuluka, anakhudzanso kwambiri chuma ndi ndale. Analidi abwino kwambiri kuika m’nyali, ndipo dziko lonse linkafunafuna mafuta otere.

Posakhalitsa, m’madera amene mumapezeka mafutaŵa ku United States anthu anali kalikiliki kugula malo ndi kukumba zitsime. Masiku amenewo zinkamveka kaŵirikaŵiri kuti auje alemera mosayembekezeka. Zinkamvekanso kuti ena pambuyo pake chuma chawo sichinaoneke uko chinaloŵera. Eti mmodzi wa amene anaona zoterezi anali Edwin Drake, yemwe anakumba chitsime cha mafuta choyamba ku Pennsylvania.

Ngakhale kuti malonda a mafutaŵa anatchuka kwambiri, sipanatenge nthaŵi kuti ku Pennsylvania malondaŵa aloŵe pansi kwa nthaŵi yake yoyamba, kapenanso mwina izi zinachitika chifukwa cha kutchukako. Tangoganizirani kuti mtengo wa mafutaŵa unatsika kuchoka pa madola 20 pa mgolo umodzi n’kufika pa masenti 10! Mitengo inatsika kwambiri chifukwa mafutaŵa ankayengedwa ambiri komanso anthu ankati akagula ankangowasunga kuti adzawagulitse akadzakwera mtengo, moti zitsime zina sizinachedwe kuuma. Mzinda wa Pithole, ku Pennsylvania, ndi chikumbutso chapadera cha masiku amenewo chifukwa lerolino munangotsala anthu oŵerengeka. Mzindawu unakhazikitsidwa, n’kutukuka,  ndipo patangotha chaka chimodzi ndi theka chiukhazikitsereni, anthu ambiri anali atasamukamo. Nthaŵi zabwino komanso zovuta zimenezo zakhala zofunika kwambiri m’mbiri ya mafuta okumbidwa pansi.

Mu 1870, John D. Rockefeller ndi anzake ena angapo anayambitsa kampani ya mafuta yotchedwa Standard Oil. Kampaniyi ndiyo yokha inali kugulitsa palafini mpaka pamene anthu ena, makamaka a ku Russia, anayamba malondaŵa. Munthu wina amene anayamba kupikisana naye anali Marcus Samuel, yemwe anayambitsa kampani yomwe masiku ano imatchedwa kuti Royal Dutch/Shell Group. Ndiponso, chifukwa cha nzeru zawo ndi luso lawo, ana aamuna a m’banja la a Nobel * anayambitsa kampani ya mafuta yamphamvu kwambiri ku Russia yomwe mafuta ake anali kuwakumba ku Baku.

Uku ndiko kunali kuyamba kwake kwa mbiri ya makampani ambirimbiri a mafuta a pansi panthaka. Kuchokera nthaŵi imeneyo, anthu akhala akupanga mabungwe osiyanasiyana pofuna kupeŵa kusakhazikika kwa mitengo ndiponso kayengedwe ka mafutaŵa monga zinkachitikira poyamba paja. Limodzi la mabungweŵa ndi bungwe la mayiko amene amagulitsa mafutaŵa ku mayiko ena la Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). M’bungweli muli mayiko 11, ndipo mwa mafuta onse pa dziko lonse amene ndi oti angathe kukumbidwa, ambiri zedi ali m’mayiko ameneŵa.—Onani bokosi pa tsamba 7.

Kodi Pali Mafuta Ochuluka Bwanji, Nanga Ali Kuti?

Pofika kumapeto kwa zaka za m’ma 1800, makampani a mafuta akanatha kutsekedwa chifukwa chosoŵa malonda popeza kuti anthu anali kugwiritsa ntchito kwambiri magetsi. Komabe, anthu anapanga chinthu china chapamwamba kwambiri chomwe chinathetsa vutoli, ndipo chinthuchi ndi injini yoyendera mafuta, yomwe makamaka amaigwiritsa ntchito m’galimoto. Petulo, yemwe amatchezedwa ku mafutaŵa, tsopano anali kufunika kwambiri m’magalimoto a injini zoyendera mafuta, ndipo pofika cha kumapeto kwa m’ma 1920 n’kuti magalimoto otereŵa alipo kale m’mayiko  otukuka ambiri. Tsopano panali kufunika mafuta ambiri kuti anthu azitha kuyenda mosavuta. Koma kodi akanawapeza kuti?

Mmene zaka zikupita, malonda a mafuta padziko lonse akhala akuyenda bwino chifukwa chakuti anthu akumka napezabe madera atsopano m’mayiko osiyanasiyana amene angakumbemo mafutaŵa, moti pali madera pafupifupi 50,000! Komabe tikamanena za kukumba ndi kuyenga mafuta, mfundo yofunika si kuchuluka kwa madera mmene muli mafutawo, koma kukula kwa maderawo. Kodi maderaŵa ndi akuluakulu motani?

Madera amene ali ndi mafuta oti atha kukumbidwa n’kukwana migolo yosachepera mabiliyoni asanu ndiwo madera akuluakulu kwambiri, pamene otsatira kwa ameneŵa ndi amene ali ndi mafuta okwana migolo yoyambira pa mamiliyoni faifi handiredi kufika pa mabiliyoni asanu. Ngakhale kuti mu lipoti la kafukufuku yemwe dziko la United States linachita m’chaka cha 2000 munalembedwa kuti mafuta a pansi panthaka angathe kukumbidwa m’mayiko 70, mayiko ochepa chabe ndiwo amene ali ndi madera akuluakulu kwambiri a mafuta. (Onani bokosi pa tsamba 7.) Madera ochuluka otereŵa ali ku chidikha cha zimiyala zopangika ndi kuunjikana kwa zinthu chomwe chili m’mayiko a Arabia ndi Iran. M’chidikhachi mulinso nyanja ya Persian Gulf ndi madera ozungulira nyanjayi.

Anthu sanasiye kufufuza madera atsopano amene mungakhale mafutaŵa. M’malo mwake akulimbikirabe chifukwa chokhala ndi makina ofufuzira amakono. Pakali pano maso a anthu okumba ndi kuyenga mafuta ali pa dera la nyanja ya Caspian, momwe muli mayiko a Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia, Turkmenistan, ndi Uzbekistan. Bungwe loona nkhani zokhudzana ndi zimenezi la ku United States la Energy Information Administration linati m’dera limeneli mungathe kukumbidwa mafuta ambiri zedi ndiponso gasi wambiri. Anthu akufufuza njira zina, monga ngati yodzera m’dziko la Afghanistan, zotumizira mafutaŵa akamawagulitsa kumayiko ena. Apezanso madera ena mmene mungathe kukumbidwa mafutaŵa ku Middle East, ku Greenland, ndi m’mayiko ena a ku Africa. Mmene amasinthira chiphalaphala cha pansi panthaka chimenechi  kuti chikhale mphamvu zoti anthu azigwiritsa ntchito komanso kuti apangire zinthu zimene timazifuna tsiku ndi tsiku ndi nkhani ina payokha.

Kodi Mafutaŵa Amawapopa Bwanji Pansi pa Nthaka?

Akatswiri a za miyala ndi nthaka komanso a zofufuza malo amaunguza nthaka imene mungakhale muli mafutaŵa. Atayeza zina n’zina zimene amafuna, amakumba pamalowo kuti atsimikizire kuti palidi mafuta. Kalelo, munthu ankati akakumba n’kufikadi pamene pali mafutawo, matope komanso chiphalaphala cha mafutaŵa zinkamuthovokera. Izi zinkawonongetsa mafuta oyambirira kutuluka, ndiponso panali ngozi yakuti pamalopo pakhoza kuphulika. Koma zida zimene amakumbira masiku ano zimateteza zimenezi kuti zisachitike chifukwa zimakhala ndi zipangizo zoyezera ndiponso zinthu zapadera zotsekera m’mapaipi. Komanso masiku ano amatha kukumba kadzenje kakang’ono koma kozama zedi.

Mphamvu imene imatulutsira pamtunda chiphalaphala cha mafutaŵa limodzi ndi gasi imachepa m’kupita kwa nthaŵi, ndiye pofuna kuti ikhalebe yambiri amathiramo madzi, mankhwala, kapenanso mpweya wa mtundu winawake. Chiphalaphala cha mafutaŵa chimakhala cholimba mosiyanasiyana mogwirizana ndi dera lakelo. Kaŵirikaŵiri mafuta a chiphalaphala chosalimba kwambiri ndiwo amene anthu amawakonda chifukwa savuta kupopa ndi kuyenga.

Bungwe loona za mafuta la American Petroleum Institute linati chifukwa cha umisiri wamakono anthu amathanso kukumba chopita m’mbali, motsatana ndi chimwala chokuta pansi padziko, zimene zimachititsa kuti asaboole zitsime zambiri. Kupopa mafuta m’nyanja, komwe kunayamba mu 1947 ku nyanja ya Gulf of Mexico, kunawonjezera kwambiri mafuta oyengedwa. Inde, mtengo wa mafuta oyengedwawo umatengera njira imene agwiritsa ntchito popopa mafutaŵa. *

Kodi Mafutaŵa Amawatumiza Bwanji Kwina?

Mu 1863 ku Pennsylvania anapanga mapaipi amatabwa okhala ndi bowo laling’ono kuti azitumiziramo mafutaŵa, chifukwa mapaipiŵa anali otsika mtengo komanso osavuta kugwiritsa ntchito poyerekeza ndi migolo ya malita 159 yomwe anali kuitengera pa ngolo. * Mapaipi amene akuwagwiritsa ntchito masiku ano ndi amakono komanso ngochuluka. Bungwe loona za mapaipiŵa, la Association of Oil Pipe Lines, linati dziko la United States lokha, eti lili ndi mapaipi otumiziramo mafuta okwana mtunda wa makilomita 300,000!

M’mapaipi ameneŵa, amene kwenikweni amapangidwa ndi zitsulo, amatumiziramo ku fakitale chiphalaphala chimene angopopa kumene, komanso amatumiziramo zimene ayenga ku chiphalaphalacho kuti azikagulitsa. Chifukwa cha umisiri wamakono, mapaipiŵa amakhala ndi zinthu zoona mmene mafutawo akuyendera komanso kuti akudutsa mwamphamvu motani. Palinso zinthu zina zimene anthu akonza masiku ano, monga tizida tinatake timene timadutsa m’mapaipiŵa n’kumafufuza zina n’zina kwa makilomita ambirimbiri, komanso tizida tofufuza ngati paipi ili ndi timabowo ting’onoting’ono, limodzinso ndi tizida tofufuza ngati m’kati kapena kunja kwa paipi kwayamba ming’alu. Komatu mwina zimene munthu wogwiritsa ntchito mafutawo angaone ndi chikwangwani basi chosonyeza kuti pansipo anakwirirapo paipi ya mafuta ndipo sipayenera kukumbidwa.

 Ngakhale kuti mapaipi ndi ofunika kwambiri, si othandiza mukafuna kutumiza mafuta ambiri ku mayiko a tsidya lina lanyanja. Koma amalonda oyambirira anapezanso njira yabwino yochitira zimenezi, yomwe inali kugwiritsa ntchito sitima zapamadzi zikuluzikulu kwambiri. Sitimazi amazikonza mwapadera ndipo zimakhala zazitali mwina mpaka kufika mamita 400. Sitima zonyamula mafuta ndizo sitima za m’madzi zikuluzikulu kwambiri ndipo zimatha kunyamula mafuta okwana migolo wani miliyoni kapena kupitirira pamenepo. Komatu ngakhale kuti sitima za mafuta zimaoneka kuti n’zamphamvu zedi, n’zofooka penapake pamene anthu sanapakonzebe mpaka pano, ndipo bokosi lakuti “Kutayika kwa Mafuta” likusonyeza zimenezi. Maboti ndi sitima zapamtunda amazigwiritsanso ntchito nthaŵi zambiri potumiza mafuta ochuluka. Komatu kutumiza mafuta kwa anthu kuti azigwiritsa ntchito ndi mbali imodzi chabe ya zimene amachita ndi mafutaŵa kuchokera pamene awapopa.

Kalaŵi kamoto kooneka pa paipi yaitali yotulukira utsi, yomwe imateteza ngozi, kamakudziŵitsani kuti imeneyo ndi fakitale ya mafuta. Chimene makamaka chimachitika m’nyumba zikuluzikulu zoyengeramo mafuta zimenezo n’chakuti, chiphalaphala cha mafuta chija amachiŵiritsa n’kuchitumiza kotchezera kumene amachitcheza zinthu zosiyanasiyana. Zinthu zimene zimatchezekazo zimayambirira ndi zopepuka kwambiri, zomwe ndi gasi monga byuteni; ndipo zimamalizira ndi zolemera kwambiri, zomwe, mwa zinthu zina, amapangira mafuta ofeŵetsera zitsulo. (Onani masamba 8-9.) Komatu zimenezi sizikuyankhabe funso lakuti, Kodi ndiye kuti mafutaŵa ali m’pokomera ndi poipira pake?

[Mawu a M’munsi]

[Bokosi/Chithunzi patsamba 5]

MIGOLO KAPENA MATANI?

Makampani a mafuta oyambirira a ku Pennsylvania anali kutumiza mafuta mu migolo ya vinyo ya malita 180. N’kupita kwa nthaŵi m’migolomo anali kuikamo mafuta okwana malita 159 poganizira kuti amatayikira m’njira. Mpaka lerolino amayezabe mafutaŵa m’migolo (ya malita 159) pochita malonda.

Kungochokera pachiyambi pake, mafuta a ku Ulaya anali kuwatumiza kudzera panyanja, ndipo nthaŵi zambiri anali kuwayeza kulemera kwake m’matani, monga mmene amachitira masiku ano.

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Magwero ake: American Petroleum Institute

[Bokosi patsamba 6]

KODI MAFUTA ANAPANGIKA BWANJI?

Kuyambira m’ma 1870 asayansi ambiri akhala akuganiza kuti mafuta anapangika chifukwa cha zinthu zakufa. Iwo amati “pakapita nthaŵi yaitali, zidutswa za zinthu zakufa zomwe zinakwiririka pansipa zimawolerana n’kusanduka mafuta ndi gasi ndipo amati kenaka mafuta ndi gasi ameneyu amaunjikana m’ming’alu ya miyala yopangika chifukwa cha kuunjikana kwa zinthu yomwe imapezeka pamwamba kwambiri pa chimwala chokuta pansi pa dzikoli.” Zimenezi n’zimene zimapanga mafuta a pansi panthaka, omwe makamaka amapangidwa ndi haidulojeni ndiponso kaboni. Komabe kungoyambira m’ma 1970 nthaŵi zina asayansi ena akhala akutsutsa mfundo imeneyi.

M’magazini ya Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences ya pa August 20, 2002 munali nkhani yonena za chiyambi cha mafuta. Olemba nkhaniwo anati mafuta ayenera kuti anayambira “pansi penipeni pa dzikoli” osati chapamwamba monga mmene ambiri amaganizira.

Katswiri wina wa sayansi, Thomas Gold anatchulaponso maganizo ena omwe ambiri sagwirizana nawo ndipo analongosola zifukwa zimene anaganizira choncho m’buku lakuti The Deep Hot Biosphere​—⁠The Myth of Fossil Fuels. Iye anati: “Maganizo akuti mafuta anachokera ku zinthu zakufa anatchuka kwambiri ku United States ndiponso m’mayiko ambiri a ku Ulaya mwakuti anachititsa kuti anthu asaganizirenso mfundo za mtundu wina pankhaniyi. Koma umu si mmene zinthu zinalili m’mayiko amene kale anali kupanga Soviet Union.” Zinali choncho “mwina chifukwa chakuti Mendeleyev, yemwe anali katswiri wa sayansi wopatsidwa ulemu kwambiri kumeneko, ankagwirizana ndi mfundo yakuti mafuta sanachokere ku zinthu zakufa. Mfundo zimene anatchula potsimikizira zimenezi n’zogwira mtima kwambiri masiku ano, chifukwa tikudziŵa zambiri.” Kodi maganizo akuti mafuta sanachokere ku zinthu zakufa ngotani makamaka?

A Gold anati: “Mfundo yakuti mafuta sanachokere ku zinthu zakufa imanena kuti zinthu zimene zimapanga chiphalaphala cha mafutaŵa ndi zina mwa zinthu zimene zinaunjikana n’kupanga dziko lapansili zaka pafupifupi mabiliyoni anayi ndi theka zapitazo.” Malingana ndi mfundo imeneyi, ndiye kuti chipangikireni dzikoli zinthu zimene zimapanga mafutaŵa zakhala zili pansi penipeni pa dzikoli. *

[Mawu a M’munsi]

[Bokosi/Chithunzi pamasamba 10, 11]

KUTAYIKA KWA MAFUTA

▪ Mafuta onse amene sitima za mafuta zapamadzi zinataya kuyambira mu 1970 kufika mu 2000 ndi okwana matani 5,322,000

▪ Mu 1979, panatayika mafuta ochuluka koposa nthaŵi ina iliyonse pamene sitima yotchedwa Atlantic Empress inawombana ndi inzake yotchedwa Aegean Captain panyanja ya Caribbean, ndipo panawonongeka mafuta okwana matani 287,000

▪ Ngakhale kuti nthaŵi zambiri mafuta amatayika pothira ndi pokhuthula mu sitima, ambiri amatayika sitima ikawombana ndi chinachake kapena ikakhula pansi

▪ Pamenenso mafuta ochuluka kwambiri anawonongeka osati chifukwa chotayika mu sitima:

● Kuphulika kwa chitsime chotchedwa Ixtoc I mu 1979 chomwe anali kufufuzirapo za mafuta ku nyanja ya Gulf of Mexico. Mafuta onse amene anawonongeka: Malita 500,000,000

● Mu 1983 malo opoperapo mafuta pa chitsime cha pa nyanja ya Persian Gulf anaphulika. Mafuta onse amene anawonongeka: Malita 300,000,000

● Mu 1991 anachita kutayira dala mafutaŵa ku nyanja ya Persian Gulf. Mafuta onse amene anawonongeka: Malita 900,000,000

[Chithunzi]

Sitima ya mafuta yotchedwa “Erika” ikumira pafupi ndi dera la Penmarch Point, ku France, pa December 13, 1999

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Magwero ake: International Tanker Owners Pollution Federation Limited, “Oil Spill Intelligence Report,” “The Encarta Encyclopedia”

© La Marine Nationale, France

 [Zithunzi pamasamba 8, 9]

(Onani m’magazini yeniyeni kuti mumvetse izi)

KUYENGA MAFUTA A PANSI PANTHAKA KULONGOSOLA MWACHIDULE

1—KUFUFUZA

MAKINA OFUFUZIRA

Makina osonyeza malo amene pali chinthu chinachake amapereka zizindikiro zolondola zimene amazigwiritsa ntchito pofufuza

MAIKOLOFONI A PANSI PANTHAKA

GALIMOTO YOGWEDEZERA NTHAKA

MAIKOLOFONI A M’MADZI

SITIMA YOGWEDEZERA PANSI

Njira imodzi imene amagwiritsa ntchito ndiyo kumvetsera kulira kwa pansi. Zipangizo zofufuzirazo zimajambula mdidi womveka pansi panthaka, nthakayo akaigwedeza

2—KUPOPA

ZITSIME ZA PAMTUNDA

MALO A PAMADZI OPOPERAPO MAFUTA

CHITSIME CHA PANSI PA NYANJA

Mafuta amatha kupopedwa mu zitsime za pamtunda, za pa madzi, ndi za pansi pa nyanja. Nthaŵi zina m’zitsimezo amapoperamo mpweya kapena madzi kuti mafutawo azitha kutuluka mwamphamvu

[Chithunzi]

CHITSIME CHA MAFUTA CHA PANSI PA NYANJA

Sitima zoyenda zokha pansi panyanja munthu wina akuziwongolera pamtunda zimatha kugwira ntchito m’madzi, pokonza malo opoperapo mafuta

[Chithunzi]

KUKUMBA CHOPITA M’MBALI

Makina okumba pansi amene amawawongolera pamtunda amatha kuloŵa pansi n’kuyamba kukumba cham’mbali, komanso amakhala ndi zipangizo zotha kuzindikira mtundu wa mwala uliwonse

3—KUTUMIZA KWINA

MAPAIPI

SITIMA YA MAFUTA YA PAMADZI

Mafutaŵa amawatumiza m’mapaipi apamtunda, a pansi, kapenanso a m’madzi. Amagwiritsanso ntchito sitima za m’madzi, maboti, ndi sitima za pamtunda

 4—KUYENGA

FAKITALE YOYENGA MAFUTA

Chiphalaphala cha mafuta amachiŵiritsa, n’kutchezamo zinthu zosiyanasiyana zimene angapangire zinthu zogwiritsa ntchito tsiku n’tsiku

CHOTCHEZERAMO MAFUTA

Chiphalaphala cha mafuta, chomwe chimakhala chonanda komanso chakuda chimati chikabwata m’ng’anjomo, chimasanduka gasi. Kenako gasiyo akamazizira amapanga zinthu zamadzimadzi zosiyanasiyana malingana ndi mmene wazizirira. Akafika apa m’pamene amatcheza zinthu zosiyanasiyana zochokera ku mafutaŵa

20°C → GASI WA Wina ndi mefeni,ifeni,

MITUNDUMITUNDU polopeni, ndi byuteni

 

↑ ↑

20°-70°C. → PETULO Amamugwiritsa ntchito

m’galimoto ndiponso popanga

zinthu za pulasitiki

 

↑ ↑

70°-160°C → NAFUTA Angapangire mapulasitiki,

mafuta a galimoto, ndi

zinthu zina

↑ ↑

160°-250°C. → PALAFINI Amapangira mafuta a ndege

ndi a chitofu

 

↑ ↑

250°-350°C. → GASI OYILO Amapangira dizilo ndi

mafuta a ng’anjo

 

↑ ↑

400°C. → ZOTSALA Amaziyengabe n’kupanga mafuta

ogwiritsa ntchito m’fakitalemo,

mafuta ena olimba kwambiri,

zopangira makandulo, girizi,

ndi tala

↑ ↑

NG’ANJO

MPHIKA WOSUNGUNURIRA

Ziphalaphala za mafutaŵa amaziŵiritsa ndi nthunzi yotentha ndipo amathiramo zinthu zotentha za aluminiyamu zaufaufa. Mwa njirayi amasungunula ziphalaphalazo n’kupanga zinthu zimene akhoza kuzigwiritsa ntchito

Zinthu zaufaufa zimasakanikirana ndi chiphalaphala cha mafuta mu nthunzi yotentha

↓ ↓ ↓

EFINOLO MAPULASITIKI ZOWONJEZERA MU PETULO

Amagwiritsa ntchito Mwachitsanzo, Okuteni amateteza

zimenezipopanga penti, mapulasitiki a petulo kuti asapse

zodzoladzola, polesitayirini msanga mu injini,

perefyumu,sopo, amawapanga mwakutero amachititsa

ndi zosinthira kuchokera ku kuti azigwira

mtundu wa nsalu sitayirini ntchito bwino

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Photo Courtesy of Phillips Petroleum Company

[Chithunzi patsamba 7]

(Onani m’magazini yeniyeni kuti mumvetse izi)

KUMENE KUMACHOKERA MAFUTA AMBIRI

Manambala onsewo ndi mabiliyoni a migolo. Manambalaŵa sakuphatikizapo mafuta omwe sanapezeke

▪ Mayiko a mu OPEC

• Mayiko okhala ndi dera limodzi kapena madera angapo akuluakulu kwambiri a mafuta

Mafuta onse amene akhala akuyengedwa

◆ Mafuta oti angakumbidwe

▪ • ◆ 332.7 SAUDI ARABIA

• ◆ 216.5 UNITED STATES

• ◆ 192.6 RUSSIA

▪ • ◆ 135.9 IRAN

▪ • ◆ 130.6 VENEZUELA

▪ • ◆ 125.1 KUWAIT

▪ • ◆ 122.8 IRAQ

▪ • ◆ 113.3 UNITED ARAB EMIRATES

• ◆ 70.9 MEXICO

• ◆ 42.9 CHINA

▪ • ◆ 41.9 LIBYA

▪ ◆ 33.4 NIGERIA

◆ 21.2 CANADA

▪ ◆ 21.0 INDONESIA

◆ 20.5 KAZAKHSTAN

▪ • ◆ 18.3 ALGERIA

◆ 17.6 NORWAY

◆ 16.9 UNITED KINGDOM

[Zithunzi patsamba 4]

Chitsime cha mafuta choyamba ku Titusville, ku Pennsylvania, mu 1859

Mafuta akuthovoka kuchoka m’chitsime ku Texas

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

Brown Brothers

[Chithunzi patsamba 5]

Malo oyambirira okumbapo mafuta ku Beaumont, ku Texas

[Chithunzi patsamba 5]

Ngolo yatenga migolo ya mafuta

[Chithunzi patsamba 10]

Chitsime cha mafuta chikuyaka moto ku Kuwait

[Mawu a Chithunzi patsamba 5]

Zithunzi zonse: Brown Brothers