Kodi Mipukutu Yakale Inalembedwa Liti?

MU 1844, katswiri wa maphunziro a Baibulo, Konstantin Tischendorf anapita ku laibulale ya m’nyumba ina ya ansembe yotchedwa Saint Catherine, yomwe ili m’mphepete mwa phiri la Sinai ku Egypt, kuti akafufuze zolembedwa zosiyanasiyana zakale. Ali kumeneko, anapeza mipukutu ya zikopa yofunika kwambiri. Iyeyu anali katswiri wofufuza zolembedwa zakale, * motero anazindikira kuti masamba a mipukutuyo anali a Baibulo la Chigiriki la Septuagint, lomwe linamasulira Malemba a Chiheberi omwe ena amawatcha kuti Chipangano Chakale. Iye ananena kuti: “Ndinali ndisanaonepo mipukutu iliyonse yakale kwambiri kuposa mipukutu ya ku Sinaiyo.”

Akuti mwina mipukutuyi inalembedwa m’ma 300 C.E., ndipo ndi mbali ya mipukutu imene pambuyo pake anadzaipatsa dzina lakuti mipukutu ya ku Sinai. Palinso mipukutu ina yambirimbiri ya Malemba a Chiheberi ndi Chigiriki imene akatswiri angafufuzemo zinthu.

Kufufuza Zolembedwa za Chigiriki

Wansembe wina wa chipani cha Benedict, dzina lake Bernardde Montfaucon (anabadwa mu 1655 n’kumwalira mu 1741), ndi amene anayambitsa zofufuza mipukutu ya Chigiriki mwadongosolo. Kenaka, akatswiri ena anathandizanso pantchitoyi. Tischendorf anagwira ntchito yaikulu kwambiri yolemba ndandanda yosonyeza mipukutu ya Chigiriki yakale kwambiri ya mabuku a m’Baibulo, yopezeka m’malaibulale a ku Ulaya. Iyeyu ankapitapitanso ku Middle East komwe anakafufuza zolembedwa zochuluka zedi, ndipo anafalitsa zomwe anapeza pa kufufuzako.

M’ma 1900, akatswiriwa anapezanso zinthu zina zowathandiza pantchito yawo. Chinthu chimodzi ndicho buku limene analemba Marcel Richard lomwe munali ndandanda zokwana 900 zomwe analembapo mipukutu 55,000 ya Chigiriki. Ina inali ya mabuku a m’Baibulo, ndipo inkapezeka m’malaibulale 820 komanso m’nyumba za anthu. Zolembedwa zambirimbiri zopezeka m’mipukutu imeneyi zimathandiza omasulira ndiponso akatswiriwa kudziwa nthawi imene mipukutuyo inalembedwa.

Kuwerengera Zaka za Mipukutu

Taganizirani kuti mukukonza m’chipinda chinachake m’nyumba yakale. Kenaka mukuyang’ana kudenga n’kuona kalata yothimbirira yolembedwa pamanja komanso yopanda deti. Mukudzifunsa kuti: ‘Kodi kalatayi inalembedwa liti?’ Kenaka mukuonanso kalata ina. Kalembedwe kake sikosiyana kwenikweni ndi ka yoyambayo. Koma mukusangalala kwambiri kuona kuti iyiyi ili ndi deti. Ngakhale kuti simukutha kudziwa nthawi imene kalata yoyamba ija inalembedwa,  mungakhale ndi chithunzithunzi cha nthawi imene kalata yopanda detiyo inalembedwera.

Alembi ambiri akale sankaika deti limene amaliza kulemba mipukutu yawo ya mabuku a m’Baibulo. Kuti akatswiri akhale ndi chithunzithunzi cha deti limeneli, ayenera kuyerekezera zolembedwa pa mipukutuyo ndi zolembedwa zina zomwe zaka zake zikudziwika, kuphatikizapo mipukutu yomwe si ya mabuku a m’Baibulo. Amadziwa zimenezi poona zinthu monga kalembedwe kake ndiponso zizindikiro zilizonse za kalembedwe. Komabe pali mipukutu yambiri yodziwika madeti ake. Miputukuyi inalembedwa pamanja m’Chigiriki kuyambira m’ma 510 C.E. mpaka cha mu 1593 C.E.

Kalembedwe Kamathandiza Kudziwa Nthawi Yake

Akatswiriwa amagawa zolembedwa zakale za Chigiriki m’magulu awiri. Loyamba ndi la zolembedwa zokhala ndi zilembo zosaphatikiza, lachiwiri ndi la zilembo zachikhukhuza. Zachikhukhuzazi ankazigwiritsa ntchito polemba zinthu zoti sakazisindikiza. Alembi achigiriki ankagwiritsiranso ntchito mitundu yosiyanasiyana ya zilembo. Woyamba unali wa zilembo zikuluzikulu ndipo wina unali wa zachikhukhuza, ndipo panali winanso wa tizilembo ting’onoting’ono. Mtundu winawake wa zilembo zikuluzikuluzo anaugwiritsa ntchito polemba mabuku, kuyambira  m’ma 300 B.C.E. kufika m’ma 700 kapena 800 C.E. Tizilembo ting’onoting’ono tija anayamba kutigwiritsa ntchito m’ma 700 kapena m’ma 800 C.E., mpaka kufika m’ma 1400 C.E., panthawi imene ku Ulaya anayamba kusindikiza mabuku pa makina. Chifukwa chogwiritsira ntchito tizilembo timeneti ankatha kulemba mwamsanga zinthu zambirimbiri ndiponso sankawononga zikopa zambiri.

Akatswiri osiyanasiyana amakondanso njira zosiyanasiyana zofufuzira nthawi imene mipukutu inalembedwa. Ambiri amayamba aiona kaye mwa apo ndi apo ndipo kenaka amayamba kuiunika mosamala, n’kumayang’anitsitsa chilembo chilichonse mumpukutuwo. Popeza kuti zinkatenga nthawi yaitali kwambiri kuti kalembedwe kasinthe, kufufuza mpukutuwo mosamala, ngakhale kuti n’kofunika, sikungathandize kudziwa bwinobwino nthawi imene mpukutuwo unalembedwa.

Chosangalatsa n’chakuti pali njira zinanso zodziwira bwinobwino nthawiyi. Imodzi mwa njira zimenezi ndiyo yoona mmene nkhaniyo ankaiyambira. Mwachitsanzo, m’mabuku a Chigiriki omwe analembedwa chaka cha 900 C.E. chitadutsa, alembi ankakonda kulemba zinthu mophatikiza zilembo. Anayambanso kulemba zilembo zina pansi pamzera, pofuna kuthandiza wowerenga kutchula bwino mawuwo.

Kawirikawiri, kalembedwe ka munthu sikasintha kwenikweni pa moyo wake wonse. Motero, mwina pangatenge zaka zoposa 50 kuti kalembedwe kayambe kusintha m’njira yoti munthu angathe kukasiyanitsa. Komanso nthawi zina alembi ankakopera kalembedwe ka m’mipukutu yakalekale, motero zolemba zawozo zinkaoneka ngati zakale kwambiri. Ngakhale kuti pali mavuto ambiri ngati amenewo, pali mipukutu ingapo yofunika kwambiri ya mabuku a m’Baibulo yomwe yadziwika madeti ake.

Kudziwa Madeti a Mipukutu Ikuluikulu ya Chigiriki ya M’Baibulo

Mipukutu ya ku Alexandria, yomwe panopo ili ku laibulale ina ku Britain, inali mipukutu yoyamba pa mipukutu yofunika kwambiri ya mabuku a m’Baibulo yomwe akatswiri anapeza. Ili ndi mabuku ambiri a m’Baibulo ndipo inalembedwa pa zikopa zopyapyala m’zilembo zikuluzikulu za  Chigiriki. Mpukutu umenewu akuti ndi wa kumayambiriro kwa m’ma 400 C.E. Anadziwa zimenezi makamaka chifukwa cha kusintha kwa kalembedwe ka m’zaka za pakati pa 400 ndi 500 C.E. Chitsanzo cha zimenezi ndicho mpukutu wotchedwa Dioscorides, wa ku Vienna. *

Mpukutu winanso wofunika womwe akatswiri anapeza ndi mpukutu wa ku Sinai, womwe unatengedwa ndi Tischendorf, ku nyumba ya ansembe yotchedwa Saint Catherine. Mpukutuwu unalembedwa pa zikopa, m’zilembo zikuluzikulu za Chigiriki ndipo uli ndi mabuku ena a Malemba Achiheberi ochokera m’Baibulo la Chigiriki la Septuagint komanso muli mabuku onse a Malemba Achigiriki Achikhristu. Pampukutuwu pali masamba 43, omwe akusungidwa mumzinda wa Leipzig, ku Germany; masamba 347 omwe akusungidwa ku nyumba yosungira mabuku ya British Library ku London; ndipo palinso masamba atatu omwe akusungidwa mumzinda wa St. Petersburg, ku Russia. Akatswiri anapeza kuti mpukutuwu unalembedwa cha kumapeto kwa m’ma 300 C.E. Akuti deti limeneli n’logwirizana ndi mawu opezeka m’danga la m’mphepete mwa masamba a m’mabuku a Uthenga Wabwino. Akuti mawuwa analembedwa ndi Eusebius wa ku Caesarea, yemwe anali katswiri wa mbiri yakale m’zaka za m’ma 300 C.E. *

Mpukutu wachitatu wofunika kwambiri ndi wotchedwa Vatican Manuscript No. 1209, womwe poyamba unali ndi Baibulo lonse m’Chigiriki. Mpukutuwu unalembedwa m’ndandanda ya mabuku a ku laibulale ya ku Vatican mu 1475. Unalembedwa m’zilembo zikuluzikulu za Chigiriki m’masamba 759 a chikopa chopyapyala. Uli ndi mabuku ambiri a m’Baibulo, kupatulapo Genesis, mbali ina ya Masalmo, ndiponso mbali zina za Malemba Achigiriki Achikhristu. Akatswiri akuganiza kuti mipukutuyi inalembedwa mu 300 C.E. Kodi n’chifukwa chiyani amatero? N’chifukwa choti kalembedwe kake n’kofanana ndi kalembedwe ka mpukutu wa ku Sinai, womwenso unalembedwa m’zaka zomwezi. Komabe akatswiri amaona kuti mpukutu wa ku Vatican ndi wakaleko ndithu. Mwachitsanzo, ulibe mawu opezeka m’danga la m’mphepete mwa masamba, ngati mabuku a Eusebius aja.

Kutola Chuma Padzala

Mu 1920, nyumba yosungiramo mabuku ya John Rylands, mumzinda wa Manchester, ku England inapeza mipukutu ya gumbwa yongofukulidwa kumene kuchokera m’dzala linalake lakale kwambiri la ku Iguputo. Atafufuza mipukutuyi, yomwe munali zinthu zinanso monga makalata, malisiti, ndiponso mapepala a kalembera, katswiri wina, dzina lake Colin Roberts, anaona kachidutswa kokhala ndi mavesi omwe iyeyo anawazindikira, ochokera mu chaputala 18 cha buku la Yohane. Uwu unali mpukutu wakale kwambiri wa Malemba Achigiriki Achikhristu wodziwika panthawiyo.

Kachidutswaka anakapatsa dzina loti John Rylands Papyrus 457, kapena kuti P⁵². Kanalembedwa m’zilembo zikuluzikulu za Chigiriki m’zaka za m’ma 100 C.E., patangotha zaka makumi ochepa chabe Yohane atamaliza kulemba uthenga wake. Motero sizodabwitsa kuti malemba a mumpukutuwu ndi ogwirizana kwambiri ndi malemba a mipukutu imene inadzapezeka pambuyo pake.

Akale Koma Olondola

M’buku lake lina (The Bible and Archæology), katswiri wina wa ku Britain wofufuza malemba, dzina lake Frederic Kenyon analemba izi ponena za Malemba Achigiriki Achikhristu: “Tinganene motsimikiza kuti mabuku a Chipangano Chatsopano ndi olondola ndiponso odalirika.” Katswiri winanso dzina lake William H. Green, ananenanso kuti: “Tinganene mosakayikira kuti palibe buku lina lililonse lakale kwambiri limene lakopedwa molondola kuposa [Malemba Achiheberi] amenewa.”

Zimene ananena akatswiriwa zikutikumbutsa mawu a mtumwi Petulo akuti: “Anthu onse ali ngati udzu, ndi ulemerero wawo wonse uli ngati duwa la udzu; udzuwo umafota ndipo duwalo limathothoka, koma mawu a Yehova amakhala kosatha.”—1 Petulo 1:24, 25.

[Mawu a M’munsi]

[Mawu Otsindika patsamba 21]

Pofufuza mosamala kwambiri mipukutu yokhala ndi madeti, akatswiri amatha kudziwa nthawi imene mipukutu yopanda madeti inalembedwera

[Bokosi patsamba 20]

Kodi Mpukutu wa Yesaya wa ku Nyanja Yakufa Unalembedwa Liti?

Mpukutu woyamba wa buku la Yesaya wa ku nyanja yakufa, anaupeza mu 1947, ndipo unali wachikopa. Kalembedwe ka mpukutuwo kanali ka zolemba za Chiheberi zomwe zinafala isanafike nyengo ya Amasorote, kapena kuti anthu okopera Baibulo. Akatswiri anati mwina unalembedwa cha m’ma 125 B.C.E. mpaka m’ma 100 B.C.E. Kodi akatswiriwa anadziwa bwanji deti limeneli? Anatero potenga kalembedwe ka mumpukutuwu n’kukayerekezera ndi zolemba zosiyanasiyana za Chiheberi. Umboni wina wotsimikizira detili anaupeza poyeza zidutswa za mpukutuwu n’kuziunika ndi njira zasayansi.

N’zochititsa chidwi kwabasi kuti atatenga mipukutu ya kunyanja yofiira n’kuiyerekezera ndi zolemba za Amasorete, zomwe zinadzalembedwa zaka zambiri pambuyo pake, anapeza kuti palibe chiphunzitso chilichonse chimene chinasinthidwamo. * Kusiyana kumene kulipo n’kongokhudza makamaka kalembedwe ka mawu ndiponso malamulo a chilankhulo basi. Chinanso chochititsa chidwi kwambiri n’chakuti zilembo zinayi za Chiheberi zoimira dzina la Mulungu lakuti Yehova, zinalembedwa kambirimbiri mumpukutu wonse wa Yesaya.

[Mawu a M’munsi]

[Tchati/Zithunzi pamasamba 20, 21]

(Onani m’magazini yeniyeni kuti mumvetse izi)

Zilembo Zapamanja za Chigiriki

Zilembo zikuluzikulu zosaphatikiza

Kuchokera m’ma 300 B.C.E. kufika m’ma 700 C.E. kapena 800 C.E.

Tizilembo ting’onoting’ono

Kuchokera m’ma 700 C.E. kapena 800 C.E. kufika m’ma 1400 C.E.

Mipukutu Yofunika Kwambiri

400

200

Mpukutu wa ku Nyanja Yakufa

Chakumapeto kwa zaka za m’ma 100 B.C.E.

B.C.E.

C.E.

100

Mpukutu wotchedwa John Rylands Papyrus 457

125 C.E.

300

Mpukutu wotchedwa Vatican Manuscript No. 1209

Chakumayambiriro kwa zaka za m’ma 300 C.E.

Mpukutu wa ku Sinai

Zaka za m’ma 300 C.E.

400

Mpukutu wotchedwa Alexandria

Chakumayambiriro kwa zaka za m’ma 400 C.E.

500

700

800

[Zithunzi patsamba 19]

Pamwamba: Konstantin von Tischendorf;

Kumanja: Bernard de Montfaucon

[Mawu a Chithunzi]

© Réunion des Musées Nationaux/ Art Resource, NY

[Mawu a Chithunzi patsamba 20]

Dead Sea Scroll: Shrine of the Book, Israel Museum, Jerusalem

[Mawu a Chithunzi patsamba 21]

Typographical facsimile of Vatican Manuscript No. 1209: From the book Bibliorum Sacrorum Graecus Codex Vaticanus, 1868; Reproduction of Sinaitic Manuscript: 1 Timothy 3:16, as it appears in the Codex Sinaiticus, 4th century C.E.; Alexandrine Manuscript: From The Codex Alexandrinus in Reduced Photographic Facsimile, 1909, by permission of the British Library