So Ɛsɛ sɛ Edin Yehowa Pue wɔ Apam Foforo no Mu?

SO ƐHO hia sɛ Onyankopɔn din pue Bible mu? Ɛda adi sɛ Onyankopɔn te nka saa. Ne din a wɔde Hebri nkyerɛwde anan, a wɔfrɛ no Tetragrammaton, akyerɛw no pue bɛyɛ mpɛn 7,000 wɔ tete Hebri Kyerɛwnsɛm a nnipa pii frɛ no Apam Dedaw no mu. *

Bible ho animdefo gye tom sɛ Onyankopɔn din pue Apam Dedaw anaa Hebri Kyerɛwnsɛm no mu. Nanso wɔn mu pii susuw sɛ edin no ampue wɔ tete Hela nsaano nkyerɛwee a wɔfrɛ no Apam Foforo no mu.

Ɛnde sɛ Apam Foforo no kyerɛwfo bi fa asɛm fi Apam Dedaw no mu na sɛ Tetragrammaton no wom a, na ɔbɛyɛ no dɛn? Sɛ ɛba saa a, na Bible asekyerɛfo no mu dodow no ara de asɛmfua “Awurade” na edi dwuma sen sɛ wɔde Onyankopɔn din ankasa bɛhyɛ hɔ. New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures no nni nea Bible asekyerɛfo dodow no ara yɛ no akyi. Edin Yehowa, no pue wɔ Kristofo Hela Kyerɛwnsɛm, anaa Apam Foforo no mu mpɛn 237.

Nsɛnnennen bɛn na Bible asekyerɛfo hyia bere a wɔpɛ sɛ wɔkyerɛw Onyankopɔn din wɔ Apam Foforo mu no? Dɛn na yebetumi agyina so de Onyankopɔn din ahyɛ Apam Foforo no mu? Mfaso bɛn na wubenya afi Onyankopɔn din a wɔde di dwuma wɔ Bible mu no so?

 Nsɛnnennen a Bible Asekyerɛfo Hyia

Ɛnyɛ Apam Foforo nsaano nkyerɛwee a wodii kan kyerɛwee no na ɛwɔ hɔ nnɛ no. Wɔde tete nsaano nkyerɛwee a Mateo, Yohane, Paulo, ne nea afoforo kyerɛwee no dii dwuma mpɛn pii ma enti akyinnye biara nni ho sɛ ɛsɛee ntɛm. Ne saa nti wɔhwɛɛ so kyerɛw bi, na bere a ɛno nso sɛe no, wɔhwɛɛ so kyerɛw afoforo. Bere a wɔkyerɛw Apam Foforo a edi kan no bɛyɛ mfe ahanu akyi no ansa na wɔrehwɛ so akyerɛw nea ɛwɔ hɔ nnɛ no mu dodow no ara. Ɛda adi sɛ bere a wɔrehwɛ nsaano nkyerɛwee a na ɛwɔ hɔ saa bere no so akyerɛw bi no na wɔde asɛmfua Kuʹri·os anaa Kyʹri·os, Hela asɛmfua a ɛkyerɛ “Awurade,” no sii Tetragrammaton no ananmu anaa wɔhwɛɛ nea na wɔayi Tetragrammaton no afi mu no so kyerɛw bi. *

Bere a yɛahu eyi no, ɛsɛ sɛ obi a ɔyɛ Bible asekyerɛfo dwen ho hwɛ sɛ adanse wɔ hɔ a ɛkyerɛ ankasa sɛ Tetragrammaton no puei wɔ tete Hela nsaano nkyerɛwee no mu anaa. So adanse bi wɔ hɔ saa? Susuw nsɛm a edidi so yi ho hwɛ:

◼ Bere a Yesu faa Apam Dedaw no mu asɛm kae anaa ɔkenkanee no, ɔbɔɔ Onyankopɔn din. (Deuteronomium 6:13, 16; 8:3; Dwom 110:1; Yesaia 61:1, 2; Mateo 4:4, 7, 10; 22:44; Luka 4:16-21) Wɔ Yesu ne n’asuafo no bere so no, na Tetragrammaton no pue wɔ Hebri Kyerɛwnsɛm a wɔtaa frɛ no Apam Dedaw no mu, sɛnea ɛnnɛ wɔda so ara frɛ no no. Nanso mfe pii twaam a na nhomanimfo susuw sɛ Tetragrammaton no nni Apam Dedaw a wɔkyerɛɛ ase kɔɔ Hela kasa mu a wɔfrɛ no Hela Septuagint nsaano nkyerɛwee no mu, na saa ara nso na enni Apam Foforo nsaano nkyerɛwee no mu. Nanso wɔ 1950 mfe no mu hɔ no, nhomanimfo huu biribi a ɛyɛ nwonwa—Hela Septuagint asinasin a akyɛ paa, a wɔkyerɛwee wɔ Yesu bere so. Ná Onyankopɔn din a wɔde Hebri nkyerɛwde akyerɛw wɔ saa nhoma asinasin no so.

 ◼ Yesu bɔɔ Onyankopɔn din, na ɔmaa afoforo hui. (Yohane 17:6, 11, 12, 26) Yesu kae pefee sɛ: “M’Agya din mu na mebae.” Osii so dua nso sɛ “Agya no din mu” na ɔyɛɛ ne nnwuma. Nokwarem no, Yesu din kyerɛ “Yehowa Ne Nkwagye.”—Yohane 5:43; 10:25.

◼ Wɔatwa Onyankopɔn din so tiaa wɔ Hela Kyerɛwnsɛm no mu. Wɔ Adiyisɛm 19:1, 3, 4, 6 no, Onyankopɔn din hyɛ asɛmfua “Haleluia” mu. Nea ɛkyerɛ ankasa ne “Munyi Yah ayɛ!” Yah yɛ Yehowa a wɔatwa no tiaa.

◼ Tete Yudafo nkyerɛwee kyerɛ sɛ na Yudafo Kristofo no kyerɛw Onyankopɔn din wɔ wɔn nhoma mu. The Tosefta, a ɛyɛ mmara a wɔde ano ka kyerɛ afoforo a wɔkyerɛw wiei wɔ Yesu awo akyi mfe 300 no kaa Kristofo nhoma a na wɔhyew no Homeda no ho asɛm sɛ: “Ná wɔmmɔ Asɛmpa no ne minim [a na wosusuw sɛ ɛyɛ Yudafo Kristofo] nhoma no ho ban mfi ogya ho. Mmom no, na wɔde ogya hyew . . . nhoma ahorow no ne baabi a Onyankopɔn Din pue wom no.” Nhoma koro no ara faa Rabbi Yosé, Galileani a ɔtraa ase wɔ Yesu awo akyi mfe 200 mfiase mu hɔ no asɛm kae sɛ, wɔ dapɛn no mu no, “na wotwitwa baabi a Onyankopɔn Din pue wɔ [Kristofo nhoma no] mu de sie, na afei wɔahyew nea aka no.” Enti adanse a edi mũ wɔ hɔ a ɛkyerɛ sɛ na Yudafo a wɔtraa ase wɔ Yesu awo akyi mfe 200 no gye di sɛ Kristofo kyerɛw Yehowa din no wɔ wɔn nhoma ahorow mu.

Bible Asekyerɛfo Adi Eyi Ho Dwuma Dɛn?

Ɛnyɛ New World Translation no nko ne Bible a wɔasan de Onyankopɔn din ahyɛ baabi a ɛhyɛ wɔ Hela Kyerɛwnsɛm no mu. Sɛnea adanse a yɛaka ho asɛm dedaw ma yehu no, Bible asekyerɛfo pii susuw sɛ, ɛsɛ sɛ wɔsan de Onyankopɔn din no hyɛ baabi a na ɛhyɛ bere a wɔrekyerɛ Apam Foforo no ase no.

Sɛ nhwɛso no, Onyankopɔn din pue mpɛn pii wɔ Apam Foforo no a wɔakyerɛ ase kɔ Afrika, Amerika, Asia ne Pacific Supɔw so kasa ahorow mu no. (Hwɛ adaka a ɛwɔ kratafa 21.) Saa Bible nkyerɛase a aba nnansa yi bi ne Rotuman Bible (1999), a edin Jihova no pue mpɛn 51 wɔ nkyekyɛm 48 mu wɔ Apam Foforo no mu, ne Batak-Toba nkyerɛase (1989) a efi Indonesia, na edin Jahowa no pue mpɛn 110 wɔ Apam Foforo no mu. Onyankopɔn din wɔ Bible a ɛwɔ Franse kasa, German kasa, ne Spania kasa mu nso. Sɛ nhwɛso no, wɔ afeha a ɛto so 20 mfiase mu hɔ no, Pablo Besson  kyerɛɛ Apam Foforo no ase kɔɔ Spania kasa mu. Ɔde Jehová dii dwuma wɔ ne nkyerɛase no mu wɔ Yuda 14, na asehɔ asɛm bɛyɛ 100 a ɛwɔ ne nkyerɛase no mu no kyerɛ sɛ ɛbɛyɛ sɛ saa na wɔkyerɛɛ Onyankopɔn din no ase.

Nea ɛwɔ ase ha yi yɛ Bible nkyerɛase a ɛwɔ Borɔfo kasa mu a Onyankopɔn din pue wom wɔ Apam Foforo no mu ho nhwɛso no bi:

A Literal Translation of the New Testament . . . From the Text of the Vatican Manuscript, a Herman Heinfetter kyerɛɛ ase (1863)

The Emphatic Diaglott, a Benjamin Wilson kyerɛɛ ase (1864)

The Epistles of Paul in Modern English, a George Barker Stevens kyerɛɛ ase (1898)

St. Paul’s Epistle to the Romans, a W. G. Rutherford kyerɛɛ ase (1900)

The Christian’s Bible—New Testament, a George N. LeFevre kyerɛɛ ase (1928)

The New Testament Letters, a J.W.C. Wand, London Sɔfo Panyin kyerɛɛ ase (1946)

Nnansa yi, New Living Translation a woyii no adi wɔ 2004 mu a nkurɔfo pii wɔ bi no kaa asɛm yi wɔ asɛmti “The Rendering of Divine Names” (Sɛnea Wɔakyerɛ Onyankopɔn Din Ahorow Ase) a ɛwɔ nnianim asɛm no mu sɛ: “Yɛtaa kyerɛ tetragrammaton (YHWH) no ase sɛ ‘LORD’ (AWURADE), na nkyerɛwde akɛse na yɛde akyerɛw sɛnea wɔtaa yɛ no wɔ Borɔfo Bible nkyerɛase pii mu no. Nkyerɛwde akɛse yi ma edin no da nsow wɔ ʹadonai, a yɛkyerɛ ase ‘Lord’ (Awurade) no ho.” Afei, bere a ɛreka Apam Foforo no ho asɛm no, ɛkae sɛ: “Wɔakyerɛ Hela asɛmfua kurios ase sɛ ‘Lord’ (Awurade)  wɔ Apam Foforo no mu, nanso baabiara a ɛda adi sɛ wɔfaa asɛm no fii Apam Dedaw no mu, na wɔde nkyerɛwde akɛse na akyerɛw no, yɛakyerɛw no ‘LORD’ (AWURADE).” (Yɛn na yɛasi ɔfã bi so dua.) Enti Bible asekyerɛfo agye atom sɛ ɛsɛ sɛ wɔkyerɛw Tetragrammaton (YHWH) a ɛwɔ Apam Dedaw no mu nsɛm a wɔafa aka wɔ Apam Foforo no mu nso.

Nea ɛyɛ nwonwa no, The Anchor Bible Dictionary no ka asɛm yi wɔ asɛmti “Tetragrammaton in the New Testament,” (Tetragrammaton a Ɛwɔ Apam Foforo Mu) no ase sɛ: “Adanse bi wɔ hɔ a ɛkyerɛ sɛ na Tetragrammaton, a ɛyɛ Onyankopɔn Din, Yahwe no, pue wɔ Apam Dedaw no fã bi anaa ne nyinaa a wɔfaa mu nsɛm kae wɔ Apam Foforo no mu bere a wodii kan kyerɛwee no.” Nhomanimfo George Howard ka sɛ: “Esiane sɛ na wɔda so ara kyerɛw Tetragram no wɔ Helafo Bible [Septuagint] a ɛno ne Kyerɛwnsɛm a na tete asɔre no kenkan mu nti, ntease wom sɛ yebegye adi sɛ, sɛ na Apam Foforo no akyerɛwfo refa Apam Dedaw no mu asɛm aka a, na wɔnsesa emu nsɛm.”

Nnyinaso Titiriw Abien

Ɛnde, ɛda adi pefee sɛ ɛnyɛ New World Translation no ne Bible a edi kan a Onyankopɔn din pue wom wɔ Apam Foforo no mu. Sɛnea sɛ wɔfrɛ ɔtemmufo bi sɛ ommedi asɛm na sɛ ɔdansefo biara nni hɔ a ɔtɔ ne bo ase yɛ nhwehwɛmu no, saa ara na baguakuw a wɔkyerɛɛ New World Translation Bible ase no tɔɔ wɔn bo ase yɛɛ nhwehwɛmu. Wogyinaa nea wohui no so de Yehowa din hyɛɛ wɔn nkyerɛase no mu wɔ Kristofo Hela Kyerɛwnsɛm no mu. Hyɛ nneɛma abien nti a wɔyɛɛ saa no nsow.

(1) Ná Bible asekyerɛfo no gye di sɛ esiane sɛ Onyankopɔn honhom na ɛma wɔkyerɛw Kristofo Hela Kyerɛwnsɛm no na ɛka Hebri Kyerɛwnsɛm no ho nti, sɛ woyi Yehowa din no fi mu prɛko pɛ a, na ɛbɛyɛ te sɛ nea ɛsono Kristofo Hela Kyerɛwnsɛm no.

Dɛn nti na asɛm a ɛte saa tɔ asom? Wɔ bɛyɛ Yesu awo akyi mfe 50 mu hɔ no, osuani Yakobo ka kyerɛɛ mpanyimfo a na wɔwɔ Yerusalem no sɛ: “Simeon aka sɛnea Onyankopɔn dan n’ani baa amanaman no so nea edi kan yii nnipa bi fii wɔn mu maa ne din no ho asɛm fann.” (Asomafo Nnwuma 15:14) Sɛ na obiara nnim Onyankopɔn din wɔ afeha a edi kan no mu a, wususuw sɛ anka asɛm a Yakobo kae no bɛtɔ asom?

(2) Bere a wohuu Septuagint no bi a Onyankopɔn din ankasa wom, na mmom ɛnyɛ Kyʹri·os (Awurade) no, Bible asekyerɛfo no behui sɛ na Onyankopɔn din wɔ Kyerɛwnsɛm a wodii kan kyerɛwee wɔ Hela kasa mu—ne nea na ɛwɔ Hebri kasa mu—a na wɔde di dwuma wɔ Yesu bere so no mu.

Ɛbɛyɛ sɛ, akyiri yi koraa na woyii Onyankopɔn din fii Hela nsaano nkyerɛwee no mu, na eyi anhyɛ Onyankopɔn anuonyam. Wususuw ho dɛn? So na Yesu ne n’asomafo no bedi atetesɛm a ɛte saa akyi?—Mateo 15:6-9.

“Obiara a Ɔbɔ Yehowa Din”

Nokwarem no, Kyerɛwnsɛm no de adanse a edi mũ ma a ɛkyerɛ sɛ Kristofo a wɔtraa ase tete no kyerɛw Yehowa din wɔ wɔn nhoma mu ampa, titiriw bere a edin no pue wɔ asɛm bi a wɔafa afi Apam Dedaw no mu no. Ɛnde, akyinnye biara nni ho sɛ, ɛwɔ nea enti a New World Translation asan de Onyankopɔn din, Yehowa ahyehyɛ baabi a na ɛhyɛ wɔ Kristofo Hela Kyerɛwnsɛm no mu no.

Mfaso bɛn na wubenya afi asɛm yi mu? Bere a ɔsomafo Paulo refa Hebri Kyerɛwnsɛm no mu asɛm aka no, ɔkaee Kristofo a na wɔwɔ Roma no sɛ: “Obiara a ɔbɔ Yehowa din no, wobegye no nkwa.” Afei obisae sɛ: “Nanso ɛbɛyɛ dɛn na wɔbɛbɔ nea wonnye no nni no din? Ɛbɛyɛ dɛn nso na wobegye nea wɔntee ne ho asɛm no adi?” (Romafo 10:13, 14; Yoel 2:32) Bible nkyerɛase a ɛde Onyankopɔn din di dwuma wɔ baabi a ɛfata no bɛboa wo ma woabɛn Onyankopɔn. (Yakobo 4:8) Nokwarem no, hwɛ sɛnea wɔadi yɛn ni sɛ wɔama yɛahu Onyankopɔn din ankasa—Yehowa—ne sɛ yebetumi abɔ din no.

[Ase hɔ nsɛm]

[Adaka wɔ kratafa 21]

KASA AHOROW 99 A WƆDE TETRAGRAMMATON NO DI DWUMA WƆ APAM FOFORO NO MU

CHIHOWA: Choctaw

IÁHVE: Portugal kasa

IEHOUA: Mer

IEHOVA: Gilbert kasa; Hawai kasa; Hiri Motu; Kerewo; Kiwai; Marquesas; Motu; Panaieti (Misima); Rarotongan; Tahiti kasa; Toaripi

IEHOVAN: Saibai

IEOVA: Kuanua; Wedau

IHOVA: Aneityum

IHVH: Franse kasa

IOVA: Malekula (Kuliviu); Malekula (Pangkumu); Malekula (Uripiv)

JAHOWA: Batak-Toba

JAHUÈ: Chacobo

JAKWE: (Ki)Sukuma

JAHVE: Hungary kasa

JEHOBA: Kipsigis; Mentawai

JEHOFA: Tswana

JEHOVA: Croatia kasa; German kasa; Kélé (Gabon); Lele (Manus Island); Nandi; Nauruan; Nukuoro

JEHOVÁ: Spania kasa

JEHÔVA: Fang; Tsimihety

JEHOVAH: Dutch; Efik; Borɔfo; Kalenjin; Malagasy; Narrinyeri; Ojibwa

JEOVA: Kusaie (Kosraean)

JIHOVA: Naga (Angami); Naga (Konyak); Naga (Lotha); Naga (Mao); Naga (Ntenyi); Naga (Sangtam); Rotuman

JIOUA: Mortlock

JIOVA: Fiji kasa

JIWHEYẸWHE: Gu (Alada)

SIHOVA: Tongan

UYEHOVA: Zulu

YAHOWA: Thai

YAHVE: Ila

YAVE: Kongo

YAWE: Bobangi; Bolia; Dholuo; Lingala; Mongo (Lolo); (Lo)Ngandu; (Lo)Ntumba; (Ke)Sengele

YEHÓA: Awabakal

YEHOFA: Southern Sotho

YEHOVA: Chokwe; Chuana (Tlapi); (Ki)Kalanga; Logo; Luba; Lugbara; (Chi)Luimbi; (Chi)Lunda (Ndembu); (Chi)Luvale; Santo (Hog Harbor); Tiv; Umbundu; (Isi)Xhosa

YEHOVAH: Bube; Mohawk; Nguna (Efate); Nguna (Tongoa)

YEHOWA: Ga; Laos kasa; (Ki)Songe; Tshiluba

YEKOVA: Zande

YEOBA: Kuba (Inkongo)

YEOHOWA: Korea kasa

YHWH: Hebri kasa

YOWO: Lomwe

ZAHOVA: Chin (Haka-Lai)

 [Adaka/Mfonini wɔ kratafa 23]

NSƐM ASEKYERƐFO BI A ƆKYERƐƐ OBU MAA ONYANKOPƆN DIN

Wɔ November 1857 mu no, ɔsɛmpatrɛwfo Hiram Bingham II, a na wadi mfe 26, ne ne yere beduu Gilbert Islands (seesei wɔfrɛ hɔ Kiribati). Amerika Sunday School mmofra sika kakra a woyii no na wɔde tuaa asɛmpatrɛwfo hyɛn a wɔforoe no ho ka. Wɔn a wotuaa akwantu no ho ka no too hyɛn no din Morning Star, de kyerɛɛ gyidi a na wɔwɔ wɔ Kristo Mfirihyia Apem ahenni no mu.

Barrie Macdonald kae wɔ ne nhoma bi mu sɛ: “Ná Bingham nni ahoɔden pii. Ná ne yam taa haw no, na na ne nne siw bere nyinaa ma enti na ɛyɛ den ma no sɛ ɔbɛkasa wɔ baguam; na esiane sɛ na n’ani nhu ade yiye nti, na nnɔnhwerew abien anaa abiɛsa pɛ na otumi de kenkan ade da mũ nyinaa.”—Cinderellas of the Empire.

Nanso na Bingham de asi n’ani so sɛ obesua Gilbert kasa no. Ná saa a ɔbɛyɛ no nna fam. Mfiase no, nea ɔyɛe ne sɛ sɛ ɔde ne nsa kyerɛ biribi so a, na wabisa wɔn dekode no din. Bere a ɔboaboaa nsɛmfua bɛyɛ mpem mmienu ano no, ɔmaa n’akyidifo no mu baako dɔla biako wɔ nsɛmfua ɔha biara a na obenya abɛka nea waboaboa ano no ho.

Bingham nyaa ne boasetɔ no so mfaso. Bere a ne yare nti na ɛsɛ sɛ ofi Gilbert Islands wɔ afe 1865 mu no, na waboa ma wɔakyerɛw Gilbert kasa no, na na wakyerɛ Mateo ne Yohane nhoma no ase kɔ Gilbert kasa mu nso. Bere a ɔsan kɔɔ supɔw ahorow no so wɔ afe 1873 mu no, ɔde Apam Foforo a na wakyerɛ ase awie wɔ Gilbert kasa mu no kɔe. Ɔkɔɔ so de mfe 17 bio kyerɛɛ Bible no ase, na eduu 1890 mu no, na wakyerɛ Bible mũ no nyinaa ase kɔ Gilbert kasa mu.

Wɔda so ara de Bible a Bingham kyerɛɛ ase no di dwuma nnɛ wɔ Kiribati. Wɔn a wɔkenkan Bible yi behu sɛ Bingham de Yehowa din (Iehova, wɔ Gilbert kasa mu) dii dwuma mpɛn pii wɔ Apam Dedaw no mu, na ɔde dii dwuma bɛboro mpɛn 50 wɔ Apam Foforo no nso mu. Nokwarem no, Hiram Bingham yɛ obi a ɔkyerɛɛ Bible ase a na ɔwɔ obu ma Onyankopɔn din!

[Mfonini]

Hiram Bingham II

Bingham Bible a ɛwɔ Gilbert kasa mu

[Asɛm Fibea]

Atifi mfonini a efi Alfred M. Bingham nhoma mu: “The Tiffany Fortune”

[Asɛm a wɔahyehyɛ/Mfonini wɔ kratafa 18]

(Wopɛ nsɛm a wɔahyehyɛ awie no a, hwɛ nhoma no mu)

200

DEUTERONOMIUM 6:4

NASH NKYERƐWEE A ƐWƆ MMƐW KRATAA SO

Afeha a ɛto so abien anaa edi kan A.Y.B.

[Mfonini]

Tete Hebri kyerɛwsɛm a Onyankopɔn din pue wom mprenu

100

DEUTERONOMIUM 18:15, 16 A ƐWƆ KRATAA ASINASIN SO

P. FOUAD INV. 266

Afeha a edi kan A.Y.B.

[Mfonini]

Helafo Septuagint nkyerɛase a wɔde Hebri nkyerɛwde akyerɛw Onyankopɔn din

[Asɛm Fibea]

Société Royale de Papyrologie du Caire

↑

A.Y.B.

Y.B.

↓

100

300

400

DEUTERONOMIUM 18:15, 16

ALEXANDRINUS NSAANO NKYERƐWEE

Afeha a ɛto so 5 Y.B.

[Mfonini]

Wɔde K̇Ċ ne KY, a ɛyɛ Hela asɛmfua Kýrios (“Awurade”) a wɔatwa no tiawa no ahyɛ Onyankopɔn din ananmu

[Asɛm Fibea]

From The Codex Alexandrinus in Reduced Photographic Facsimile, 1909, by permission of the British Library

500

 

1900

1950

DEUTERONOMIUM 18:15 MU NSƐM A WƆAFA AKA WƆ ASOMAFO NNWUMA 3:22

NEW WORLD TRANSLATION

Afeha a ɛto so 20 Y.B.

[Mfonini]

New World Translation no de Onyankopɔn din ahyehyɛ baabi a na ɛwɔ

2000

[Mfonini wɔ kratafa 20]

Onyankopɔn din sɛnea epue wɔ Romafo 10:13 wɔ nkyerɛase ahorow mu

Hutter Bible a ɛwɔ Hebri, Hela, Latin, ne German kasa mu

Rotuman Bible

Batak-Toba Bible

New World Translation