Ingabe Ukuziphendukela Kwemvelo Kuyiqiniso?
Ingabe Ukuziphendukela Kwemvelo Kuyiqiniso?
“IQINISO lokuziphendukela kwemvelo alinakuphikwa njengoba kunjalo nangokushisa kwelanga,” kugomela uProfesa Richard Dawkins, usosayensi odumile osekela ukuziphendukela kwemvelo. Yiqiniso, ucwaningo nokubona ngokuqondile kufakazela ukuthi ilanga liyashisa. Kodwa ingabe ucwaningo nokubona ngokuqondile kuyifakazela ngendlela efanayo engenakuphikiswa imfundiso yokuziphendukela kwemvelo?
Ngaphambi kokuba siphendule lowo mbuzo, kukhona okuthile okufanele sikucacise. Ososayensi abaningi baye baphawula ukuthi ngokuhamba kwesikhathi, inzalo yezinto eziphilayo ingase ishintshe kancane. UCharles Darwin wabiza le nqubo ngokuthi “inzalo eshintsha ngokudlula kwezizukulwane.” Ushintsho olunjalo luye lwabonwa ngokuqondile, lwaphawulwa lapho kwenziwa ucwaningo, lwasetshenziswa ngokuhlakanipha abazalanisi bezitshalo nezilwane. * Lezi zinguquko zingabhekwa njengeziyiqiniso. Nokho, ososayensi babiza ushintsho olunjalo oluncane ngokuthi “ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okunemiphumela emincane.” Ngisho nale nkulumo ngokwayo iveza lokho ososayensi abaningi abakugomelayo—ukuthi lezi zinguquko ezincane ziwubufakazi benqubo ehluke ngokuphelele, engakaze ibonwe muntu, abayibiza ngokuthi ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okunemiphumela emikhulu.
UDarwin akagcinanga nje ngokugxila kulolu shintsho olusobala. Wabhala encwadini yakhe yodumo ethi The Origin of Species: “Zonke izinto angizibheki njengendalo ekhethekile, kodwa njengenzalo ephuma ngokuqondile ezintweni ezimbalwa eziphilayo.” UDarwin wathi ngemva kwesikhathi eside, lezi “zinto ezimbalwa eziphilayo” zokuqala, noma lokho okuthiwa izinto ezivamile eziphilayo, zashintsha kancane kancane—“ngokushintsha okuncane kakhulu kwezakhi zofuzo”—zaba izigidi zezinto ezihlukahlukene eziphila emhlabeni. Izazi zokuziphendukela kwemvelo zifundisa ukuthi lezi zinguquko ezincane zanqwabelana futhi zaveza ushintsho olukhulu olwaludingeka ukuze izinhlanzi ziphenduke izilwane zasemhlabeni, nezinkawu zibe abantu. Lezi zinguquko ezinkulu ezisikiselwayo kuthiwa ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okunemiphumela emikhulu. Kwabaningi, lo mbono wesibili uzwakala unengqondo. Bayazibuza, ‘Uma kungaba noshintsho oluncane ohlotsheni oluthile lwento ephilayo, kungani ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kungenakuveza ushintsho olukhulu ngemva kwesikhathi eside?’ *
Imfundiso yokuziphendukela kwemvelo okunemiphumela emikhulu isekelwe ezizathwini ezintathu eziyinhloko:
1. Ukuguquka kwezakhi zofuzo kuveza izinto ezidingekayo ukuze kudalwe izinhlobo ezintsha. *
2. Ukuzihlela nokuzivumelanisa kwemvelo kuholela ekwakhekeni kwezinhlobo ezintsha.
3. Izinsalela ezitholakele zibonisa ukuthi kuba noshintsho olukhulu ezitshalweni nasezilwaneni.
Ingabe ubufakazi obusekela ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okunemiphumela emikhulu bunamandla kangangokuba kufanele bubhekwe njengobuyiqiniso?
Ingabe Ukuguquka Kwezakhi Zofuzo Kungaveza Izinhlobo Ezintsha?
Imininingwane eminingi ngesitshalo noma isilwane inqunywa iziyalezo ezisezakhini zaso zofuzo, amapulani atholakala kuyi-nucleus yengqamuzana ngalinye. * Abacwaningi baye bathola ukuthi ukuguquka kwezakhi zofuzo—noma ushintsho oluzenzekelayo—kungabangela ushintsho enzalweni yezitshalo nezilwane. Ngo-1946, uHermann J. Muller, owazuza uMklomelo kaNobel nongumsunguli wezifundo zokuguquka kwezakhi zofuzo, wathi: “Lokhu kunqwabelana kwezinguquko eziningi ezingavamile, kodwa ezincane, akuwona umthombo wokuthuthuka kwezilwane nezitshalo ngokuzenzekelayo nje kuphela, kodwa ngaphezu kwalokho, kuyindlela ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okuye kwenzeka ngayo, kubangelwa ukuzihlela nokuzivumelanisa kwemvelo.”
Yebo, imfundiso yokuziphendukela kwemvelo okunemiphumela emikhulu isekelwe emcabangweni wokuthi ukuguquka kwezakhi zofuzo akuvezi nje izinhlobo ezintsha zezinto kodwa kuveza nezigaba ezintsha ngokuphelele zezitshalo nezilwane. Ingabe ikhona indlela yokufakazela lo mbono ogomela kangaka? Ake ucabangele lokho okuye kwembulwa ukucwaninga kweminyaka engaba yikhulu emkhakheni wezakhi zofuzo.
Ngasekupheleni kwawo-1930, ososayensi bawamukela ngesasasa umbono wokuthi uma ukuzihlela nokuzivumelanisa kwemvelo kungakhiqiza izinhlobo ezintsha zezitshalo ngokushintsha izakhi zofuzo, khona-ke ukushintsha izakhi zofuzo okuqondiswa umuntu kufanele kukwazi ukwenza lokho ngendlela ephumelela kangcono. “Zonke izazi zesayensi yezinto eziphilayo zaba nesasasa, ikakhulukazi izazi zezakhi zofuzo nabazalanisi,” kusho uWolf-Ekkehard Lönnig, usosayensi e-Max Planck Institut for Plant Breeding Research eJalimane, owaxoxa ne-Phaphama! Kungani kwakunesasasa? ULönnig, osechithe iminyaka engaba ngu-28 ecwaninga ngokuguquka kwezakhi zofuzo ezitshalweni, wathi: “Laba bacwaningi babecabanga ukuthi kwase kufike isikhathi sokushintsha indlela evamile yokuzalanisa izitshalo nezilwane. Babecabanga ukuthi ngokukhuthaza nangokukhetha ukuguqula izakhi zofuzo ezifunwayo, babengakhiqiza izitshalo nezilwane ezintsha futhi ezingcono.” *
Ososayensi e-United States, e-Asia naseYurophu baqala izinhlelo zocwaningo ezazixhaswe ngemali eshisayo, besebenzisa izinqubo ezazithembisa ukusheshisa ukuziphendukela kwemvelo. Ngemva kweminyaka engaphezu kwengu-40 yokucwaninga ngokuzimisela, yaba yini imiphumela? Umcwaningi uPeter von Sengbusch uthi: “Naphezu kwemali eningi eyachithwa, umzamo wokuveza izinhlobo ezithelayo ngokuzishisa ngemisebe wabonakala uhluleka ngendlela edabukisayo.” ULönnig wathi: “Ngawo-1980, amathemba nesasasa lososayensi kwase kushabalele emhlabeni wonke. Emazweni aseNtshonalanga, umkhakha ozimele wocwaningo wokuzalanisa ngokuguqula izakhi zofuzo walaxazwa. Cishe zonke izinto ezaziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo zaveza ‘izimpawu ezingathandeki,’ okuwukuthi, zazifa noma zazibuthaka kunezinhlobo zasendle.” *
Noma kunjalo, ukwaziswa osekukhona ngemva kweminyaka engaba ikhulu yokucwaninga ngokuguqula izakhi zofuzo kanye neminyaka engu-70 yokuzalanisa izinto ngokuguqula izakhi, kusiza ososayensi ukuba bafinyelele iziphetho ngekhono lezinto ezishintshwe izakhi lokukhiqiza izinhlobo ezintsha. Ngemva kokuhlola ubufakazi, uLönnig waphetha: “Ukuguqula izakhi zofuzo ngeke kulushintshe uhlobo oluthile [lwesitshalo noma lwesilwane] lube uhlobo olusha ngokuphelele. Lesi siphetho sivumelana nakho konke esiye sakubona nemiphumela yokucwaninga ngokuguqula izakhi ekhulwini lama-20 lilonke kanye namathuba okwenzeka kwezinto. Ngakho, umthetho wokuphindeka kwezinhlobo ezithile eziguquguqukayo ubonisa ukuthi izinhlobo ezinezakhi zofuzo ezikhethekile zinemingcele engenakwephulwa noma yeqiwe ukuguquka kwezakhi zofuzo ngengozi.”
Cabangela okushiwo amaqiniso angenhla. Uma ososayensi abagogodile behluleka ukuveza izinhlobo ezintsha zezinto eziphilayo ngokushintsha nokukhetha izakhi zofuzo ezifanele, kungenzeka yini ukuthi inqubo engenakuhlakanipha yayingenza okungcono? Uma ucwaningo lubonisa ukuthi ukuguqula izakhi zofuzo ngeke kulushintshe uhlobo oluthile lube uhlobo olusha ngokuphelele, khona-ke kwenzeka kanjani ngempela ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okunemiphumela emikhulu?
Ingabe Ukuzihlela Nokuzivumelanisa Kwemvelo Kuveza Izinhlobo Ezintsha?
UDarwin wayekholelwa ukuthi lokho akubiza ngokuzihlela nokuzivumelanisa kwemvelo kwakuyozuzisa izinto eziphilayo ezivumelana kangcono nendawo ezungezile, kanti izinhlobo ezingavumelani kahle nendawo zaziyogcina zifile. Izazi zanamuhla zokuziphendukela kwemvelo zifundisa ukuthi njengoba izinhlobo zazanda futhi zisakazeka, imvelo yakhetha lezo ezinezakhi zofuzo ezivumelana kangcono nendawo yazo entsha. Ngenxa yalokho, izazi zokuziphendukela kwemvelo zithi la maqembu asakazekile agcina ephenduke izinhlobo ezintsha ngokuphelele zezinto eziphilayo.
Njengoba sekuphawuliwe, ubufakazi bocwaningo bubonisa ngokunamandla ukuthi ukuguquka kwezakhi zofuzo akunakuveza izinhlobo zezitshalo noma zezilwane ezintsha ngokuphelele. Kodwa-ke, ibuphi ubufakazi obuvezwa izazi zokuziphendukela kwemvelo obusekela ukuzisholo kwazo ukuthi imvelo ikhetha izinto ezinezakhi eziguquliwe ezinenzuzo ukuze iveze izinhlobo ezintsha? Incwajana eyanyatheliswa yi-National Academy of Sciences (NAS) ngo-1999 e-United States ithi: “Isibonelo esishukumisa kakhulu sokwakheka kwezinhlobo ezintsha sihilela izinhlobo ezingu-13 zezintaka uDarwin azihlola eziQhingini zaseGalápagos, ezaziwa ngokuthi ama-Darwin’s finch.”
Ngawo-1970, iqembu labacwaningi elaliholwa uPeter noRosemary Grant laqala ukuhlola lezi zintaka futhi lathola ukuthi ngemva konyaka wonke wesomiso, izintaka ezinoqhwaku olukhudlwana zaziphila kangcono kunezinoqhwaku oluncane. Njengoba ubukhulu nokwakheka koqhwaku kungenye yezindlela eziyinhloko yokuhlukanisa lezi zinhlobo ezingu-13 zezintaka, kwakucatshangwa ukuthi le miphumela yayibalulekile. Le ncwajana iyaqhubeka: “AbakwaGrant baye balinganisela ukuthi uma kuba nesomiso njalo ngemva kweminyaka eyishumi kulezi ziqhingi, kungase kuvele uhlobo olusha lwentaka ngemva nje kweminyaka engaba ngu-200.”
Nokho, le ncwajana ye-NAS ayiwavezi amanye amaqiniso abalulekile, kodwa okunzima ukuwavuma. Eminyakeni yangemva kwesomiso, izintaka ezinoqhwaku oluncane zaphinde zanda. Ngakho, uPeter Grant kanye nomfundi owayesanda kuthweswa iziqu uLisle Gibbs babhala ephephabhukwini lesayensi i-Nature ngo-1987 ukuthi babebone “ukuhlehla enqubweni yokuzivumelanisa kwemvelo.” Ngo-1991, uGrant wabhala ukuthi “umhlambi walezi zinyoni, olawulwa ukuzihlela nokuzivumelanisa kwemvelo, uyashintshashintsha” isikhathi ngasinye lapho kushintsha isimo sezulu. Laba bacwaningi baphawula nokuthi ezinye “zezinhlobo” ezihlukene zezintaka ziyazalana futhi zikhiqize inzalo ephile kangcono kunabazali. UPeter noRosemary Grant baphetha ngokuthi uma lezi zinyoni ziqhubeka zizalana, lokhu kwakungaphumela ekuxubaneni “kwezinhlobo” ezimbili zibe uhlobo olulodwa phakathi neminyaka engu-200.
Emuva ngo-1966, isazi sokuziphendukela kwemvelo uGeorge Christopher Williams sabhala: “Ngicabanga ukuthi kuyadabukisa ukuthi imfundiso yokuzihlela nokuzivumelanisa kwemvelo yasungulwa njengencazelo yokuziphendukela kwemvelo. Le mfundiso ibaluleke kakhulu ekuchazeni ukuthi kungani izinto ziqhubeka zizivumelanisa nezimo.” Ngo-1999, umhlaziyi wemfundiso yokuziphendukela kwemvelo uJeffrey Schwartz wabhala ukuthi uma iziphetho zikaWilliams ziyiqiniso, ukuzihlela nokuzivumelanisa kwemvelo kungenzeka kusiza izinto ukuba zizivumelanise nezimo ezishintshashintshayo zokuphila, kodwa “akudali lutho olusha.”
Ngempela, izintaka ezahlolwa uDarwin azibi ‘okuthile okusha.’ Ziseyizintaka. Futhi iqiniso lokuthi ziyazalana lenza zingabazeke izinqubo ezinye izazi zokuziphendukela kwemvelo ezizisebenzisayo ukuze zichaze ukuthi luyini uhlobo oluthile lwento ephilayo. Ngaphezu kwalokho, zembula iqiniso lokuthi ngisho nezinhlangano eziphambili zezesayensi zingabubika ubufakazi ngendlela ekhethayo.
Ingabe Izinsalela Ezitholakele Zifakazela Ukuziphendukela Kwemvelo Okunemiphumela Emikhulu?
Incwajana ye-NAS eshiwo ngaphambili ishiya umfundi enombono wokuthi izinsalela ezitholwa ososayensi zisekela ukuziphendukela kwemvelo okunemiphumela emikhulu ngaphandle kokungabaza. Ithi: “Kuye kwatholakala izinhlobo eziningi eziphakathi kwezinhlanzi nezilwane zasemhlabeni, phakathi kwezilwane zasemhlabeni nezilwane ezihuquzelayo, phakathi kwezilwane ezihuquzelayo nezilwane ezincelisayo, naphakathi kwezilwane ezihlakaniphile, kangangokuba ngokuvamile kunzima ukusho ngokuqondile ukuthi lolu shintsho lwenzeka kuphi phakathi kwezinhlobo ezithile.”
Le nkulumo eshiwo ngesibindi iyamangalisa ngempela. Ngani? Ngo-2004, i-National Geographic yachaza ukuthi izinsalela ezitholakele zifana “nefilimu yokuziphendukela kwemvelo okusikwe kuyo izithombe ezingu-999 kulezo nalezo ezingu-1 000.” Ingabe “isithombe” esisele esisodwa kwezingu-1 000 siyifakazela ngempela inqubo yokuziphendukela kwemvelo okunemiphumela emikhulu? Yini ngempela eboniswa yizinsalela ezitholakele? UNiles Eldredge, oyisazi esishisekayo sokuziphendukela kwemvelo, uyavuma ukuthi izinsalela zibonisa ukuthi phakathi nesikhathi eside “luba luncane ushintsho olunqwabelanayo noma lungabi khona nhlobo ezinhlotsheni eziningi zezinto eziphilayo.”
Kuze kube manje, ososayensi emhlabeni wonke baye bathola futhi babika ngezinsalela ezinkulu ezingaba yizigidi ezingu-200 kanye nezigidigidi zezinsalela ezincane. Abacwaningi abaningi bayavuma ukuthi lo mlando omkhulu noningiliziwe ubonisa ukuthi wonke amaqembu amakhulu ezilwane avela ngokuphazima kweso futhi ahlala cishe enjalo, kanti ezinye izinhlobo zanyamalala ngokuzumayo ngendlela ezazivele ngayo. Ngemva kokuhlola ubufakazi bezinsalela ezitholakele, isazi sezinto eziphilayo uJonathan Wells siyabhala: “Uma kubhekwa izigaba zezinto eziphilayo nezinhlobo zazo, ukuthi kunenzalo eyavela kokhokho abafanayo inezakhi zofuzo eziguqukile akulona iqiniso eliqashelwayo. Uma kubhekwa izinsalela nobufakazi bokusebenza kwamangqamuzana, kuba sobala ukuthi akuyona nemfundiso ethandwayo.”
Ukuziphendukela Kwemvelo—Kuyiqiniso Noma Kuyinganekwane?
Kungani izazi eziningi ezivelele zokuziphendukela kwemvelo ziphikelela ngokuthi ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kuyiqiniso? Ngemva kokugxeka eminye yemibono kaRichard Dawkins, isazi esidumile sokuziphendukela kwemvelo uRichard Lewontin sabhala ukuthi ososayensi abaningi bazimisele ukwamukela imibono yesayensi engqubuzana nokuhluzeka kwengqondo “ngoba sizibophezele kokuthile kusengaphambili, sifuna ubufakazi obuphathekayo.” * Ososayensi abaningi benqaba ngisho nokuvuma ukuthi kungenzeka kunoMklami ohlakaniphile ngoba, njengoba uLewontin esho, “asikwazi ukuvumela uNkulunkulu angene kule ndaba.”
Sikhuluma ngalokhu, isazi sezokuhlalisana kwabantu uRodney Stark sicashunwa kuyi-Scientific American sithi: “Sekuyiminyaka engu-200 kukhuthazwa umbono wokuthi uma ufuna ukuba ngusosayensi kufanele ukhulule ingqondo yakho ezibophweni zenkolo.” Siphawula nokuthi emayunivesithi ezocwaningo, “abantu abathanda inkolo abawuthi vú,” kuyilapho “abantu abangayithandi inkolo bebacwasa.” Ngokusho kukaStark, “kunomvuzo wokuba umuntu ongayithandi inkolo [emkhakheni wososayensi] abavelele.”
Uma ukholelwa ukuthi ukuziphendukela kwemvelo kuyiqiniso, kumelwe ukholelwe ukuthi ososayensi abaphika ubukhona bukaNkulunkulu noma abathi akaziwa ngeke bavumele izinkolelo zabo zithonye indlela abazichaza ngayo izinto abazithole ngesayensi. Kumelwe ukholelwe ukuthi izinto eziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo kanye nokuzihlela nokuzivumelanisa kwemvelo kwakhiqiza zonke izinto eziphilayo eziyinkimbinkimbi, naphezu kweqiniso lokuthi ukucwaninga okuthathe ikhulu lonke leminyaka, kuhlolwa izigidi zezinto eziguqulwe izakhi zofuzo, kubonisa ukuthi lezi zinto azikaze zishintshe ngisho nohlobo olulodwa oluzimele lwaba uhlobo olusha ngokuphelele. Kumelwe ukholelwe ukuthi zonke izinto eziphilayo zavela kancane kancane kukhokho oyedwa, naphezu kweqiniso lokuthi izinsalela ezitholakele zibonisa ukuthi izinhlobo eziyinhloko zezitshalo nezilwane zavela ngokuphazima kweso futhi azizange ziphenduke zibe ezinye izinhlobo, ngisho nangemva kweminyaka eminingi. Ingabe inkolelo enjalo izwakala sengathi isekelwe eqinisweni, ingabe iyinganekwane?
[Imibhalo yaphansi]
^ par. 2 Abazalanisi bezinja bangakhetha ukuthi yiziphi izinja abazizalanisayo ukuze ekugcineni inzalo yazo ibe nemilenze emifushane noma uboya obukhulu kunobabazali. Nokho, izinguquko ezivezwa abazalanisi bezinja ngokuvamile zibangelwa ukukhubazeka kwezakhi ezithile zofuzo. Ngokwesibonelo, inja yohlobo lwe-dachshund iba nesiqu esincane ngenxa yokungakheki kahle koqwanga lwamathambo, okubangela ukubhasha komzimba.
^ par. 3 Nakuba igama elithi “uhlobo” lisetshenziswa kakhulu kulesi sihloko, kufanele siphawule ukuthi encwadini yeBhayibheli kaGenesise lisetshenziswe ngomqondo obanzi kakhulu kunalona. Ngokuvamile, lokho ososayensi abakhetha ukukubiza ngokuthi ukuvela kohlobo olusha lokuphila kumane nje kuwumehluko omncane okhona phakathi kwezinto “zohlobo” olufanayo iBhayibheli elikhuluma ngazo.
^ par. 5 Bheka ibhokisi elithi “Indlela Izinto Eziphilayo Ezihlukaniswa Ngayo.”
^ par. 1 Ucwaningo lubonisa ukuthi i-cytoplasm yengqamuzana, ulwelwesi kanye nezinye izinto ezikulo nako kunendima ekwakhekeni kwento ephilayo.
^ par. 3 Okushiwo uLönnig kulesi sihloko kuwumbono wakhe futhi akuvezi umbono we-Max Planck Institut for Plant Breeding Research.
^ par. 4 Uma kwenziwa ucwaningo ngokuguqula izakhi zofuzo ngokuphindaphindiwe, kwatholakala ukuthi izinhlobo ezintsha zazilokhu ziwohloka, kuyilapho kwakulokhu kuvela uhlobo olufanayo lwezinto eziguqulwe izakhi. Ebheka lokhu uLönnig wathola lokho akubiza ngokuthi “umthetho wokuphindeka kwezinhlobo ezithile eziguquguqukayo.” Ngaphezu kwalokho, kwakhethwa izitshalo eziguquliwe ezingaphansi kwephesenti elilodwa ukuze kuqhutshekwe nocwaningo, kanti kwatholakala ukuthi ingxenye yazo engaphansi kwephesenti kuphela eyayifanelekele ukusetshenziswa. Imiphumela yokuzalanisa izilwane ngokuguqula izakhi zazo zofuzo yahluleka ngaphezu kweyezitshalo, ngakho leyo nqubo yalaxazwa ngokuphelele.
^ par. 1 Kule ndaba, ubufakazi obuphathekayo bubhekisela embonweni wokuthi izinto ezibonakalayo yizona kuphela eziyiqiniso noma eziyisisekelo, nokuthi konke okusendaweni yonke, kuhlanganise nazo zonke izinto eziphilayo, kwaba khona ngaphandle kokungenela kwamandla angaphezu kwawemvelo.
[Amazwi acashunwe esihlokweni ekhasini 15]
“Ukuguqula izakhi zofuzo ngeke kulushintshe uhlobo oluthile [lwesitshalo noma lwesilwane] lube uhlobo olusha ngokuphelele”
[Amazwi acashunwe esihlokweni ekhasini 16]
Okuhle kakhulu okubonakala ezintakeni ama-Darwin’s finch ukuthi uhlobo oluthile oluphilayo lungazivumelanisa nesimo sezulu esishintshayo
[Izithombe ekhasini 16, 17]
Izinsalela ezitholakele zibonisa ukuthi wonke amaqembu ayinhloko ezilwane avela ngokuphazima kweso futhi awashintshanga
[Ishadi ekhasini 14]
(Ukuze ubone ukuthi indaba ihlelwe kanjani, bheka encwadini)
INDLELA IZINTO EZIPHILAYO EZIHLUKANISWA NGAYO
Izinto eziphilayo zihlukaniswa ngamaqembu ahlukahlukene kakhulu, kusukela ezinhlotsheni ezithile kuya emikhakheni yazo. * Ngokwesibonelo, qhathanisa indlela abantu nezimpukane ama-fruit fly okuhlukaniswe ngayo njengoba kuboniswe ngezansi.
ABANTU AMA-FRUIT FLY
Uhlobo sapiens melanogaster
Isigaba Homo Drosophila
Umndeni Hominids Drosophilids
Uhlelo Primates Diptera
Uhlu Ezincelisayo Izinambuzane
Uhlobo Zinomgogodla Azinamgogodla
Umkhakha Izilwane Izilwane
[Imibhalo yaphansi]
^ par. 49 Phawula: UGenesise isahluko 1 uthi izitshalo nezilwane zaziyokhiqiza “ngezinhlobo zazo.” (Genesise 1:12, 21, 24, 25) Nokho, inkulumo yeBhayibheli ethi “uhlobo” ayiyona inkulumo engokwesayensi futhi akufanele ididaniswe nenkulumo engokwesayensi ethi “uhlobo.”
[Umthombo]
Leli shadi lisekelwe encwadini kaJonathan Wells ethi Icons of Evolution—Science or Myth? Why Much of What We Teach About Evolution Is Wrong
[Isithombe ekhasini 15]
Impukane i-“fruit fly” eshintshwe izakhi zofuzo (phezulu), nakuba ikhubazekile, iseyi-“fruit fly”
[Umthombo]
© Dr. Jeremy Burgess/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
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Lapho kucwaningwa ngokushintsha izakhi zofuzo zezitshalo kwatholakala ngokuphinda-phindiwe ukuthi inani lezinhlobo ezintsha lalincipha, kuyilapho kwakuvela uhlobo olufanayo oluguqulwe izakhi zofuzo (Uhlobo olubonisiwe olushintshwe izakhi zofuzo lunezimbali ezinkudlwana)
[Umthombo Wesithombe ekhasini 13]
From a Photograph by Mrs. J. M. Cameron/ U.S. National Archives photo
[Umthombo Wesithombe ekhasini 16]
Finch heads: © Dr. Jeremy Burgess/ Photo Researchers, Inc.
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Dinosaur: © Pat Canova/Index Stock Imagery; fossils: GOH CHAI HIN/AFP/Getty Images